Locket Rings

Locket rings play a crucial part in unraveling the plot of Sense and Sensibility. Between Edward’s locket ring with a piece of Lucy’s hair and Willoughby cutting Marianne’s hair for a piece of his own, this gives the reader an insight into the importance of mementos to lovers. The rings came into popular fashion when Queen Elizabeth the I had one crafted with a miniature portrait of her as a young woman and the other portrait was speculated to be of her mother, Anne Boleyn. As a tradition in England, once the Queen wore it everyone else followed. Rings often contained a miniature portrait, silhouette, or piece of hair of a loved one. The rings were often used as mourning rings, a remembrance of the dead, and did not gain traction as a romantic gesture until the Regency era. During this time, having a lock of hair concealed in a ring often symbolized an engagement, secret or outed, or a deep emotional connection between two people. Austin uses the lockets on two occasions in the book to reveal a significant plot point. The first incidence is when Willoughby cuts a lock of Marianne’s hair, further solidifying the family’s speculation that the two are secretly engaged. The second scene that highlights the locket ring is when the sisters ask Edward Farris whose hair is in his locket ring, to which he states it is his sister’s, Fanny’s, hair but later it is revealed to Elinor that the true owner of that hair belongs to Lucy Steele. Locket rings are an important symbol in Austin’s work as well as in regency society.

Kane, Kathryn. “For Love or Death:   Locket Rings.” The Regency Redingote, 12 Feb. 2017,            https://regencyredingote.wordpress.com/2017/02/10/for-love-or-death-lock....

Newfoundlands and Gytrash

In Jane Eyre, Mr. Rochester owns a Newfoundland named Piolet. Newfoundland dogs originated in Canada as aids for hunters and fishermen. There are a multitude of stories from the Newfoundland and Labrador placing their origin roughly around the 11^th century. There are accounts of Viking Leif Erikson being accompanied by a large black dog that resembled a Newfoundland. The dog breed became popular in Europe around the 17^th century as working dogs in the harbors and on ships. Newf’s are most commonly associated with having black fur, but they can have white and black fur. When Jane first sees Piolet, she refers to him as a Gytrash. A gytrash is a mythological creature from Welsh mythology and is thought to be an omen of doom. Gytrash are notorious shapeshifters that can take the form of a multitude of creature such as horses, mules, cranes, cows, and most often canines. The description of these creatures is a black, large, and furry which quite similar to the characteristics of Newfoundland. During the 1800s, Newfoundlands were a very common sight in England as both seamen and nobles adored the dog breed. Not only are they good working dogs as they can pull nets, carts, and drowning people, but nobles found the legends of the breed irresistible. The breed has a heroic history of saving people and going on adventures, notably Lewis and Clark took a Newf with them on their expedition through the American wilderness. Seeing as the breed has a noble, distinguished, and mysterious air to them, it is not a surprise they made an appearance in notable Victorian literature.  

https://www.hanc.net/breed-history.html#:~:text=During%20the%2019th%20century%2C%20the,passengers%20and%20crews%20from%20drowning.

https://lewis-clark.org/people/seaman/newfoundland-dogs/

https://www.thenewfoundland.org/mellencamp2.html

Snakes in South African Culture

In western culture, snakes often have negative connotations, most famously serving as a symbol of evil, stemming from Christianity’s use of the animal as a form of the devil.  Many times, they are associated with both good and evil, as well as fertility and life (Serpent Symbolism).  As mentioned in Mofolo’s novel, snakes are revered in South African cultures, so much so that the killing of a snake brings shame because they are believed to be messengers sent by their ancestors (Mofolo 2). 

There are numerous folk tales and superstitions about animals, and there are many beliefs about snakes, one of them being that the appearance of a snake at the time of a traditional ceremony is a sign of content ancestors.  In Zulu tradition, eating raw snake liver acts as a protective charm.  Snakes are also considered immortal, potentially because of their ability to shed their skin (Makhubo). 

Mofolo also highlights that, because of the importance of the snakes in Kafirland, they are a prominent part of medicine in the area.  Snakes are also important to Zulu warriors, so it provides context to why the symbol would be mentioned so early and so heavily in Chaka’s story.  He encounters a sea snake early in the story, which is frightening because, while snakes in his culture could represent pleased ancestors, they can also be a sign that they are displeased, and one must beg for mercy from the spirits that had been angered (Mofolo 3). 

Works Cited

Makhubo, Buyisile. "Myths and Superstitions about Reptiles and Amphibians." National Museum Publications, 30 Nov. 2017, nationalmuseumpublications.co.za/myths-and-superstitions-about-reptiles-and-amphibians/. Accessed 13 Apr. 2023.

Mofolo, Thomas. Chaka An Historical Romance. Translated by F. H. Dutton, 1931.

"Snake Symbolism." Wikipedia, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpent_symbolism#. Accessed 13 Apr. 2023.

British Romanticism Movement

The British Romanticism movement was a literary movement that started in the late 18th century and is estimated to have ended in the 1830's. This period was defined by an increased interest in the individual in literature, the awe of nature, Gothic writing style, and the celebration of creativity. Key authors in this period are William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Lord Byron, William Blake, Percy Bysshe Shelley and Mary Shelley (Poetry Foundation). Many scholars debate that Lyrical Ballads by William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge was the start of the Romantic period. Though William Blake had published Songs of Experience prior to Lyrical Ballads, the latter established the characteristics of Romanticism whilst straying from the sophistocated and exquisite diction of the Neo-Classicism movement (Allegretti).  

The Second Generation Romantics established a different tone for the period, such as Lord Byron's satirical and seductive poetry, establishing the Byronic Hero, a new archetype in literature that deviated from the typical hero role (Poetry Foundation). Mary Shelley established the Gothic novel during this era with her publishing of Frankenstein, or The Modern Prometheus in 1818. Her husband, Percy Bysshe Shelley focused on poetry that touched on death, nature, and emotion, all defining traits of the movement itself (Allegretti). 

Allegretti, Catherine. "The Romantic Period." Eastern Conneticut State University, https://www.easternct.edu/speichera/understanding-literary-history-all/t...

"British Romanticism." Poetry Foundation, https://www.poetryfoundation.org/collections/152982/an-introduction-to-b...

Wordsworth, William and Samuel Taylor Coleridge. Lyrical Ballads. Project Gutenburg, 10 October 2003. 

Coverture Law and Courtship Etiquette in Regency Era

The idea of coverture is vital to the plot of Sense and Sensibility.  Coverture is a practice that began in the Middle Ages under common law but lasted through the Regency Era (The Law of Coverture). Coverture maintained that a woman was legally subordinate to her husband.  He managed her money, gained control of her property, and received almost exclusive responsibility of her (Coverture).  Dowries were also a part of coverture; a woman’s family paid for her to be married, and this money, again, went exclusively to her husband.  Until a woman was married, her affairs were handled by the man of the house, usually her father. 

Along with such laws regarding marriage, young men and women were also expected to conform to certain etiquette and societal conventions during courtship.  Courtship was the stage prior to engagement that required couples to obey strict rules about behavior.  Such rules included not being allowed to call each other by their Christian names, pay each other compliments, or ride in a carriage without a chaperone.  Couples were also forbidden from having private correspondence or any sort of intimate contact (Rules of a Regency Courtship).  Many of these courtship rules were broken by Marianne and Willoughby, which led those around them to assume an engagement. 

Often, during this era, courtship and eventual marriage was more of a business transaction than anything else, usually because of the idea of coverture.  Edward Ferrars’s engagement to Lucy Steele was not acceptable to his mother because she was poor (Austen).  He was expected to marry someone with money so that he could inherit it.  Likewise, it is easy to conclude that Willoughby marries Miss Grey because she is rich; Austen writes, “‘But the family are all rich together.  Fifty thousand pounds’” (Austen).

The customs and expectations of the Regency Era heavily impacted how and why relationships formed, and it is evident to see how these ideas affect the Dashwood sisters. 

There was no official end to coverture, but the passing of other legislature in the mid-19^th century slowly moved the practice out of fashion (The Law of Coverture).

Works Cited

Austen, Jane. Sense and Sensibility. 1811.

"Coverture." Britannica, Encyclopedia Britannica, 8 Oct. 2007, www.britannica.com/topic/coverture. Accessed 7 Feb. 2023.

"The Law of Coverture: Why Call a Woman by Her Husband's Name?" Amazing Women in History, amazingwomeninhistory.com/law-of-coverture-why-call-a-woman-by-her-husbands-name/. Accessed 7 Feb. 2023.

"Rules of a Regency Courtship." Random Bits of Fascination, 11 Feb. 2021, randombitsoffascination.com/2021/02/11/rules-of-a-regency-courtship/. Accessed 7 Feb. 2023.

Invention of Steam Powered Printing Press

Sharing scary stories around a fire is not something teenagers thought of one day to spook each other. Verbally telling tales of ghosts, ghouls, spirits, and monsters has been around for many decades. Before the printed book, these stories were mainly shared orally or through illustrations on natural materials such as clay or rocks. It has been proven that tales would be passed down through generations and generations. Families would participate in storytelling to pass time; this was common before the development of electricity (Yuko). Then came the invention of the printing press in 1453; printing text on paper and disseminating information became a worldly practice. My years later during the industrial revolution, the steam powered printing press was invented in London, England on November 29, 1814, by Friedrich Koenig and Andreas Bauer. By reason of their invention books, novels, newspapers, etc., could be printed and produced at much faster rate than ever before (“Printing Press”). The invention permitted authors to share their work more widely and to a broader audience. Supernatural and ghost stories became a very popular genre in Victorian England. Much like Charles Dicken’s A Christmas Carol, these were produced for an audience of the middle-class and released just in time for Christmas, where families would gather and share stories. Printed versions of these ghost stories “were available to read everywhere from cheap publications to expensive Christmas annuals that middle-class ladies would show off on their coffee tables” (Cooke). One of the main reasons Dicken’s novel became so popular was due to the steamed printing press in 1814. Dickens is admired as starting the tradition of sharing ghost stories around Christmas time, as well as generating many Christmas traditions due to the availability and preservation of A Christmas Carol.

Cooke, Simon. “Victorian Ghost Stories.” The Victorian Web, https://victorianweb.org/genre/ghoststories/cooke.html.

“Printing Press.” Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printing_press.

Yuko, Elizabeth. “How Ghost Stories Became a Christmas Tradition in Victorian England.” History, 15 Dec. 2021, https://www.history.com/news/christmas-tradition-ghost-stories.

Eruption of Mount Tambora

Mount Tambora is a volcano on the island of Sumbawa in present day Indonesia, then part of the Dutch East Indies. Its eruption in 1815 was the most powerful volcanic eruptions recorded in human history. “It had the effects of causing 10,000-11,000 deaths from direct volcanic effects and 49,000-90,000 deaths from post-eruption famine and epidemic diseases. This eruption was said to have reduced global temperatures in the following year which led to famine in numerous regions” (1815 Eruption of Mount Tambora). This was called the ‘year without a summer’. During this period, the days were cold and wet across Europe and North America. This summer of 1816 also erupted the start of gothic tales in literature. This is when gothic literature emerges in Europe in the 18^th century and its entails placing strong emphasis on intense emotion, pairing terror with pleasure, and death with romance. This is also when Polidori’s The Vampyre was also written which has dark themes such as seduction and murder.

“Mary Shelley was said to witness this eruption’s effects firsthand as she traveled across Europe with her husband” (Strickland, Ashley). During her trip, she was confined indoors by the bad weather. This is when she was said to write her novel Frankenstein. “As she wrote, she inflected the foreboding landscapes and human misery into her emerging horror novel” (Alan Marshall Lecturer in Environmental Social Sciences). The volcano was inactive for 5,000 years before it exploded. The eruption of Mount Tambora can be paralleled to the awakening of the monster, both an eruption of life. While the gothic era may not have given way because of the eruption of Mount Tambora

“1815 Eruption of Mount Tambora.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 14 Apr. 2023, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1815_eruption_of_Mount_Tambora. 

Alan Marshall Lecturer in Environmental Social Sciences. “Did a Volcanic Eruption in Indonesia Really Lead to the Creation of Frankenstein?” The Conversation, 3 Apr. 2023, https://theconversation.com/did-a-volcanic-eruption-in-indonesia-really-...

Strickland, Ashley. “Why a Volcanic Eruption Caused a 'Year without a Summer' in 1816.” CNN, Cable News Network, 17 Sept. 2019, https://www.cnn.com/2019/09/17/world/tambora-eruption-year-without-summe...

Ndwandwe-Zulu War

Shaka was the king of the Zulu Kingdom from 1816 to 1828. As one of the most influential monarchs of the ZULU, “he ordered wide-reaching reforms that reorganized the military onto a formidable force” (Shaka). Chaka in this novel can easily represent Shaka. They both greed for more power and more fame, stopping at nothing to get it. They kill their wife and their mother to make sure they are the most powerful warrior. In the novel, it tells of Chaka’s great wars and how many lives were lost in the process of them. Some estimate that during the reign of Shaka, more than a million lives were lost. “Shaka’s wars between 1818 and 1828 contributed to a series of forced migrations known in various parts of southern Africa. Famine and chaos followed the wholesale extermination of populations and the destruction of herds and crops between the Limpopo and the Gariep River “(Shaka Zulu). One of the great wars in the novel and in real life was the Ndwandwe-Zulu War. This was fought with only 4,000 Zulu men and 25,000 Zwide men. Yet still, Shaka had prepared his men for extreme battle tactics and wore the invaders down with guerrilla tactics. Shaka winning this war helps the reader to understand that while this novel is a historical fiction, the mass casualties and power-hungry ideals are still relevant. Chaka had built up his war with 40,000-60,000 men and most of the time, they would almost all not return from war. This was was the final phase “of the Mfecane, a catastrophic, bloody civil war and eventual migration of many different tribes in the area, initially caused by famine but ultimately a result of escaping from Zulus” (Ndwandwe-Zulu War).

Mofolo, Thomas. Chaka, An Historical Romance

“Ndwandwe–Zulu War.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 10 Mar. 2023, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ndwandwe%E2%80%93Zulu_War. 

“Rise of the Zulu People under King Shaka Zulu.” Rise of the Zulu People Under King Shaka Zulu, https://www.south-africa-tours-and-travel.com/zulu.html. 

Shaka Zulu | South African History Online. https://www.sahistory.org.za/people/shaka-zulu. 

“Shaka.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 16 Mar. 2023, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaka. 

Journals

Journals are a record of day-to-day events or a record of ideas and reflections (“Journal”). This style of writing dates back to the fifteenth century in Europe, journals served as a spiritual reflection for individuals (" American History through Literature 1820-1870”). Not only does this type of literature allow readers to understand the author on a deeper level, but also, has allowed this style of writing to evolve over the years. Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad discusses personal accounts of the main character, Marlowe, exploring the Belgian Congo. Marlowe dreamt of exploring the wilderness of the Congo, but soon realized the brutality of this environment. There is a dark and gloomy undertone to the novel that unveils the loss of civilization once one enters the depths of the Congo. Conrad says, “What greatness had not floated on the ebb of that river into the mystery of an unknown earth! ... The dreams of men, the seed of commonwealths, the germs of empires,” which shows the excitement of Marlowe; the reader can tell through the punctuation used that this is not a formal type of writing (Conrad). The punctuation and writing style seems more personal than a standard prose or poetry piece.

Works Cited

“" American History through Literature 1820-1870”. Encyclopedia.com. 27 Apr. 2023 .” Encyclopedia.com, Encyclopedia.com, 1 May 2023, https://www.encyclopedia.com/arts/culture-magazines/journals-and-diaries.

Conrad, Joseph. Heart of Darkness, 1902.

“Journal.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., https://www.britannica.com/art/journal-literature.

Marriage Laws in England

The laws in England were based on the idea that women would get married and that their husbands would take care of them. This is due to the women only being seen as housewives and mothers to their children. Women had no rights, and it was not seen as appropriate for a woman to work outside their household. Extremely poor women had to base almost their entire life on marrying a man who would give them an estate to live on as well as who had a huge inheritance that they could survive on. Until 1823, " a woman had to be at leats 21 years old to be married but this changed to allow women as young as 12-14 to be married" (Vatuna).

Britain passed the 1882 Married Property Act, which states that a woman got married her wealth passed to her husband. Even if a woman worked after she was married, her earnings still went to her husband. “This allowed the idea that upper- and middle-class women had to stay dependent on a man; first as a daughter and later as a wife” (John Simkin). Divorce by the woman was not an option during this time. Although, men during this time with the Matrimonial Causes Act of 1857 gave them the right to divorce their wives on the grounds of adultery. Once divorced, the children can be taken away from the wife and then were property of the father. These marrying ideals is also not mentioning the ration of available men to available women. There was a shortage of available men due to “the mortality rate for boys was far higher than girls, men served in armed forces, and men were more likely to emigrate than women” (John Simkin). In the 1800s, women were clearly used as property instead of treated like humans. They were given no opportunity to make a life for themselves and had to entirely depend on inheritance and bachelor men.

This is impacted the reading of the novel becuase the entire novel is centered around Marianne and Elinor trying to find a man to marry to support themselves and their mother. Their sensibility in the events that take place in the novel make sense due to their entire future resting on finding a man that will choose them. This also adds to the plot of the novel by using Elinor and Marianne to represent the other women in their position during this Victorian time period. 

John Simkin. “Marriage in the 19th Century.” Spartacus Educational, Spartacus Educational, https://spartacus-educational.com/Wmarriage.htm. 

Vatuna, Molly. “Marriage in the Victorian Era.” COVE, 5 Oct. 2020, https://editions.covecollective.org/chronologies/marriage-victorian-era.

Pianoforte

In Sense & Sensibility by Jane Austen, the pianoforte appears several times throughout the novel. It is one of the first items unpacked when the Austen women moved to Burton. The ability to play the pianoforte is considered desirable. Laura Vorachek notes that “learning to play the piano was a standard part of a middle-class girl’s training since it was believed to provide discipline, diversion, and a skill that would help her attract a husband” (26). Considering this, Jane Austen may have been attempting to portray the fact the Marianne was more composed than the reader may have initially thought. The narrator of Sense & Sensibility says, “Willoughby opened the piano-forte, and asked Marianne to sit down to it” (Austen). The fact that Willoughby calls for Marianne to come play for him is indicative of his thinking she is desirable. Additionally, when Marianne is heartbroken, she is described as spending “whole hours at the pianoforte alternately singing and crying; her voice often totally suspended by her tears” (Austen). She may be relying on the instrument that once drew her closer to Willoughby, to now bring her comfort and solace. It also may symbolize her crying over the thought of being less suitable as a potential wife if her ability to play was indicative of her eligibility. This makes me think that the pianoforte had been more important than I had initially believed. I think it is a comfort item that Marianne can lean on in times of both happiness and sadness.

Works Cited 

Austen, Jane. Sense and Sensibility. Cove.

Vorachek, Laura. “‘The Instrument of the Century’: The Piano as an Icon of Female Sexuality in the Nineteenth Century.” George Eliot - George Henry Lewes Studies, no. 38/39, 2000, pp. 26–43. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/42827934.

The 1833 Factory Act

During the Industrial Revolution, child labor was utilized throughout England, primarily London, which became an industrially centered economy. Prior to 1833, children of all ages were not only used to work in the presence of dangerous machinery but were expected to so they could help supply for their families. The 1833 Factory Act was passed to address concerns about the education of children, as well as their safety and exhaustion. This act decided that children from the ages of nine to twelve were prohibited from working more than nine hours a day. Children of the ages thirteen to seventeen years of age were permitted to work no more than twelve hours a day (National Archives). There were also “factory inspectors” that were placed in each factory, usually one per shift, who ensured that the maximum amount of work hours was not being exceeded amongst child workers (UK Parliament). Though this act advocated for an easier workplace for children, a nine-hour workday for a nine-year-old child was still exceptionally exhausting and harmful to the child worker’s health. The inspectors, though mandatory and meant to ensure safety in the factories, did not usually ensure the child workers nor the adult workers were receiving proper work breaks (Encyclopedia Britannica). The act was a legal push in the correct direction for worker’s rights, though its effect was minimal and child labor continued in the industrial London for decades.

“Child Labor.” Encyclopedia Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/topic/child-labour#ref171559.

“The 1833 Factory Act.” The National Archives UK, https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/education/resources/1833-factory-act/.

“The 1833 Factory Act.” UK Parliament Archives, https://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/transformingsociety/livi....

The 1834 Poor Law

While poor laws existed prior to this time, the Poor Law Act of 1834 (also known as the New Poor Law) replaced earlier legislation, where poor relief was mainly supplied by taxes from the middle and upper classes. The 1834 Poor Law reduced the burden to these classes and relegated relief to workhouses. In other words, the poor could only find relief at a workhouse. Workhouses offered accommodations and "employment" for those who could not support themselves financially. Conditions at workhouses were harsh and one would have been quite desperate to turn to this kind of relief. The new poor laws were ineffective in assisting with the welfare of the poor and the human condition.

Linked sources:

https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/education/resources/1834-poor-law/#b...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poor_Law_Amendment_Act_1834

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workhouse

Sport Hunting

Throughout time, whether it be for survival or not, humankind has taken part in the sport of hunting. What one may find interesting is the cultural significance that this act held in terms of the Victorian Era. It was quite popular during this time, and many had strong feelings of excitement regarding “the season,” or the time in which one was allowed to hunt (“Victorian Pastimes & Recreations: Hunting in Britain”). There were certainly many motivations for those to participate in this activity; many took part in hunting to brag of their kills while others did so because they loved the atmosphere it harbored (“Victorian Pastimes & Recreations: Hunting in Britain”). In most parts of Europe, however, only the upper class were recognized as “hunters,” whereas the population of the lower class were called “poachers;” both groups were taking part in the same act, ultimately (“Victorian Pastimes & Recreations: Hunting in Britain”). Furthermore, even royalty participated in such an activity, and even Queen Victoria, herself, wrote of her own excursions in Scotland (“Victorian Pastimes & Recreations: Hunting in Britain”). The major animals of interest for this group of enthusiasts were deer, rabbits, and even boar ("Victorian Pastimes & Recreations: Hunting in Britain").

In terms of Jane Austen’s Sense and Sensibility, my understanding of the text is deepened through my research of this topic. I now understand the notions taken by that of the female demographic regarding values they want in a suitor. This also may explain why Willoughby is considered attractive by Marianne upon their first meeting; he upholds a notion valued by the society of the time (Austen).

Works Cited

Austen, Jane. Sense and Sensibility. 1811.

“Victorian Pastimes & Recreations: Hunting in Britain.” Victorian Voices,

https://www.victorianvoices.net/topics/recreation/hunting.shtml.

Image Scanned by: Philip V. Allingham (https://victorianweb.org/art/illustration/cruikshank/crusoe/7.html)

Christianity

In Victorian England, the most prominent religion practiced was Christianity. The Anglican churches of England, Wales, and Ireland were the state churches; however, the Church of Scotland was Presbyterian ("Victorian Era"). There was further religious diversity because citizens also practiced Methodism, Roman Catholicism, Judaism, Muslims, and Hinduism ("Victorian Era"). Until 1843, an act by Parliament was required to make new churches; this made it difficult for the church to be represented in the manufacturing cities of England ("Victorian Religion"). The Victorian people were very religious while also being god fearing; however, there was a significant decline of structured practice towards the end of the era ("Victorian Era Religion and Religious Beliefs").

Throughout the novel of Jane Eyre, Bronte makes multiple biblical illusions as well as biblical imagery. The character of Helen is portrayed as an angelic, wisdom figure for Jane. Bronte’s word choice is showing her as an enlightened individual who embodies stability and stoicism for young Jane. Also, she references different biblical stories, theme, or events that connect to the strong religious beliefs of the Victorian people. The use of religion in novels was relatable to the readers of the time and still applicable today.

 Works Cited

“Victorian Era.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., https://www.britannica.com/event/Victorian-era.

“Victorian Religion.” English Heritage, https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/learn/story-of-england/victorian/rel....

“Victorian Era Religion and Religious Beliefs.” Victorian Era, 7 May 2020, https://victorian-era.org/victorian-era-religion-and-religious-beliefs.html.

Ivory Trade

Ivory trade refers to the illegal buying and selling of ivory tusks, commonly from elephants.  Internationally, commercial ivory trade was not banned until 1989, but illegal elephant poaching continued into the 21^st century (Fighting to End the Elephant Ivory Trade).

While the trade of ivory can be traced back to ancient times, it developed greatly during the nineteenth century, especially in eastern and central Africa.  A high demand from Europe and North America increased the export value of the resource (Beachey 269).   Ivory was used in various ways, from piano keys to jewelry, and was an extravagant display of wealth.  The value of ivory also stayed fairly consistent throughout the nineteenth century, helping it to maintain its demand. 

Being that ivory quickly became an important economic export, it makes sense that European nations in the midst of industrial and economic revolutions would take an opportunity to become involved.  Countries like Belgium colonized African countries and took advantage of the native people to grow their economies, a system that Joseph Conrad criticizes in his novella Herat of Darkness.

Works Cited

Beachey, R. W. "The East African Ivory Trade in the Nineteenth Century." The Journal of African History, vol. 8, no. 2, 1967, pp. 269-90. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/179483. Accessed 4 Apr. 2023.

Conrad, Joseph. Heart of Darkness. 1899.

"Fighting to End the Elephant Ivory Trade." World Wide Fund for Nature, www.wwf.org.uk/updates/fighting-end-elephant-ivory-trade. Accessed 4 Apr. 2023.

The Irish Potato Famine

The Irish Potato Famine first occurred during the summer of 1845 in which virtually all potato crops in Ireland were destroyed (“The Irish Potato Famine”). It is suspected that this occurred due to “static electricity,” or because of fumes from the relatively new locomotives (“The Irish Potato Famine”). What some may find surprising is that this event occurred because of a fungus that traveled from Mexico to Ireland (“The Irish Potato Famine”). Because of this occurrence, many of the Irish began to experience cholera; dysentery; scurvy; typhus; and lice; this would come to be known as “Famine Fever,” and it quickly began to spread throughout the Irish countryside (“The Irish Potato Famine”). Because approximately half of Ireland’s population ate potatoes as a large part of their diet – mostly due in part because they were easy to grow – many began to starve, and over the course of ten years, 750,000 Irish died, as well as over two million left to places such as the United States of America, Canada, and Great Britain (“The Irish Potato Famine”). During this time, the British were the acting government over the Irish, and the relief efforts they led were unsuccessful, and the event as a whole created a large distrust of the British from the Irish population (“The Irish Potato Famine”).

My understanding of Charles Dickens’ A Christmas Carol, while potentially surprising, is deepened by reading about this event. This is because the Irish Potato Famine reminded me much of the careless nature of Scrooge towards his underlings; Scrooge is Great Britain and the remaining supporting characters in the work are the Irish. This can be seen with both Scrooge’s miserly nature towards the poor, which creates the premise of why he is visited by the Ghosts of Christmas Past, Present, and Future (Dickens). Furthermore, like the Irish opinion of Great Britain during the famine, many of Scrooge’s peers do not like him, made evident in the quote: “No beggars implored him to bestow a trifle, no children asked him what it was o’clock, no man or woman ever once in all his life inquired the way to such and such a place, of Scrooge” (Dickens). While Dickens may not have explicitly drawn inspiration from the Irish Potato Famine, it is clear that the parallels between this event and work are uncanny.

Works Cited

Dickens, Charles. A Christmas Carol. 1843.

“The Irish Potato Famine.” Digital History,

https://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/voices/irish_potato_famine.cfm.

Tuberculosis

In the novel, Jane Eyre by Charlotte Brontë, Jane met Helen Burns at Lowood School where they became friends. Jane learns Helen is sick with consumption, now known as tuberculosis. In her death, Helen teaches Jane an important lesson about death and the afterlife. There were several prominent illnesses at the time Charlotte Brontë wrote this novel. This prompted further research as to why she chose consumption for Helen’s death. Consumption was thought to be a “sign of poverty or an inevitable outcome of the process of industrial civilization” (Tuberculosis in Europe and North America, 1800-1922). Which correlates to them living in a low-income school for girls. The conditions were not high quality due to the low cost of tuition. Another reason Brontë may have chosen consumption is outlined in the article “The Disease of the Self: Representing Consumption, 1700-1830.” Clark Lawlor and Akihito Suzuki say that “the classical culture of consumption put strong emphasis on the tragic and heroic bravery of the patient” (Lawlor 464). Helen was at peace with her approaching fate and can be considered to have died a heroic death in Jane’s story. The night of Helen’s death, Jane and Helen had a conversation about Heaven. This conversation gives them both comfort and hope for what Helen will experience after her death. Additionally, this is a new perspective for Jane to consider. Scholar Claire Dunnington says “their conversation contrasts greatly with what many adults in Jane's life have informed her, and contrasts with Jane's previous fears regarding ghosts, death, and the supernatural” (Dunnington). This experience foreshadows Jane’s experiences later in the novel. By choosing consumption, Brontë allowed Helen to have a heroic death that taught Jane an invaluable lesson. One of the most impactful reasons for implementing consumption may have come from Brontë’s personal experience. She lost family members as noted “seven of whom died from the disease” (Brownell). This may be the most significant reason for selecting consumption for Helen’s death.  

Works Cited

Brownell, Robert. “‛The Dark Shadow’: Consumption (tuberculosis) in the families of nineteenth-century writers.” Victorian Web. https://victorianweb.org/science/health/tb.html

Dunnington, Claire. “Helen Burns and Death in Brontë's Jane Eyre.” Helen Burns and Death in Brontë's Jane Eyre, 2 Feb. 2004, https://victorianweb.org/authors/bronte/cbronte/dunnington1.html.

Lawlor, Clark, and Akihito Suzuki. “The Disease of the Self: Representing Consumption, 1700-1830.” Bulletin of the History of Medicine, vol. 74, no. 3, 2000, pp. 458–94. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/44445500.

“Tuberculosis in Europe and North America, 1800-1922.” Contagion - CURIOSity Digital Collections, 26 Mar. 2020, https://curiosity.lib.harvard.edu/contagion/feature/tuberculosis-in-euro....

Divorce and Matrimonial Causes Act of 1857

The novel Jane Eyre written by Charlotte Bronte paints a clear picture of the injustices of marriage laws in the 1800s when the novel takes place. A marriage in England was “legally an indissoluble union” (Holmes). Men could not divorce a woman and a woman could not divorce a man. This however changed to only allow men to request divorce, most likely on the terms of a cheating wife. A bastard son was the last thing a rich man wanted to be known for in society. A name, fortune, or social status could easily be stripped of its meaning if it was found that a man had a bastard son. If a woman, however, was being cheated on by her husband, she could not ask for a divorce. There was a huge double standard. This was the case until the Divorce and Matrimonial Causes Act of 1857 was introduced. “This allowed women to end the marriage only if her husband’s adultery had been compounded by another matrimonial offense” (The Origins of Victorian Divorce Law). It was not until the ‘Matrimonial Causes Act of 1923 that allowed both men and women to divorce their partner for adultery’ (The Origins of Victorian Divorce Law). There were no longer double standards, but adultery was the only requirement. This plays a role in the novel by showing why Mr. Rochester cannot divorce Bertha and must stay with her, even though she is clinically insane. This was a huge part of the novel due to Mr. Rochester and Jane Eyre’s marriage ceremony being the turning point of the entire novel. If Mr. Rochester would have divorced Bertha, he would have married Jane Eyre and she would have never found her cousins who she now has a sisterly and brotherly connection with. She also might not have inherited her fortune, which brings Jane from poverty. Including this real-world problem of divorce not being readily available in the 1800s allows the reader to understand the severity and seriousness of marriage. St. John asking Jane to marry him, shows the reader that once Jane marries him, she would be with him for the rest of her life. Mr. Rochester and Jane Eyre’s situation also demonstrates the severity of the divorce laws as he must keep his wife locked away with special care due to her being insane. He, however, is stuck with her. This shows the reader that the subject of marriage is not taken lightly.

Works Cited

Holmes, Ann Sumner. “The Double Standard in the English Divorce Laws, 1857–1923: Law & Social Inquiry.” Cambridge Core, Cambridge University Press, 27 Dec. 2018, https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/law-and-social-inquiry/article/a...

Kristen Koster. “Regency Divorce and Annulments: A Primer by Kristen Koster.” Kristen Koster, 29 May 2019, https://www.kristenkoster.com/a-regency-divorce-primer/. 

“The Origins of Victorian Divorce Law.” The Origins of Victorian Divorce Law, https://www.victorianweb.org/gender/layton2.html. 

Imperialism

Imperialism is defined as a policy of extending a country’s power and influence through diplomacy or military force (“Imperialism”). In the novella, Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad, imperialism is a prominent component of the frame narrative. On February 5, 1885, Belgian King Leopold II established the Congo Free State by brutally seizing the African landmass. Rather than control the Congo as a colony, Leopold privately owned the region ("Belgian King Establishes Congo Free State"). Through Conrad's novel, Marlow’s retelling of his time in the Congo, it is evident that the Congo fell victim to British imperialism. In part I of the novella, Marlow describes the people rushing to the Congo to earn money and status as, “just robbery with violence, aggravated murder on a great scale, and men going at it blind—as is very proper for those who tackle a darkness. The conquest of the earth, which mostly means the taking it away from those who have a different complexion or slightly flatter noses than us, is not a pretty thing when you look into it too much” (Conrad I). In writing in such a way, Conrad reveals the utter darkness of imperialism through Marlow’s account.  

            Following the story of those rushing to the African Congo to earn their wealth, the violence and military force aspect of imperialism comes forth in Marlow’s story. At multiple points the novella, readers are exposed to the harsh and vivid truth of this; aspects of slavery, racism, murder, and torture of the African natives is told in the narrative. Scholars have argued Conrad’s assessment of imperialism through his novella for decades. Researcher Hunt Hawkins states that, “his portrayal of African culture in the story is admittedly less detailed than his description of Malaysia in his Eastern novels… while Conrad does not idealize tribal culture, he still denounces the intervention that disrupted it… Marlow feels most positive toward those Africans who have not been extensively detribalized by imperialism” (296). In a sense, the way Conrad portrays this in his novels is different than the way his main characters think about the situation.

Works Cited

“Imperialism.” Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperialism.

"Belgian King Establishes Congo Free State." National Geographic. 

Hawkins, Hunt. “Conrad’s Critique of Imperialism in Heart of Darkness.” PMLA, vol. 94, no. 2, 1979, pp. 286–99. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/461892.

Rickets Disease (Tiny Tim's Aliment)

Tiny Tim's aliment and the prediction of his early demise are some of the key factors that play into Ebenezer Scrooge changing his heart and becoming a "good man". Though the illness is never named within the text, based on the description of Tim Cratchit's actions and symptoms many scholars believe Tim is afflicted with "Ricket Disease". Rickets is "a disease of childhood caused by a vitamin D deficiency" and was not prevalent in England until the industrial revolution (Porter).  Though the disease was rampant amongst the working class and impoverished, it was not fully-understood unit 1919, when Dr. Mellanby published in "4th Vitamin" a formal definition and the cause of Rickets. Mellanby states that "Rickets is a deficiency disease which develops in consequence of the absence of some accessory food factors and factors. It therefore seems probable that the cause of rickets is a diminished intake of antirachitic factor, which is either fat-soluble factor A, or has a similar distribution to it" (Wheeler). Factor A is another name for vitamin D which none of the working-class Victorians in England were getting due to the smog, poor working conditions, and inability due to workload to play outdoors. Rickets is characterized by the bones growing weaker, skeletal deformities, bow-leggedness, dwarfism, and scoliosis. Tiny Tim's weak body, lame leg, and living conditions all suggest he was afflicted with Rickets. 

Dickens, Charles. "A Christmas Carol." 1843

Porter, Tom. “Pregnancy and Rickets in Victorian Britain: A Dangerous Combination.” News, 2021, https://www.bowdoin.edu/news/2021/04/pregnancy-and-rickets-in-victorian-....

Wheeler, Benjamin J., et al. “A Brief History of Nutritional Rickets.” Frontiers, Frontiers, 31 Oct. 2019, https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fendo.2019.00795/full#B22.