Recueil Des Causes Célèbres, written by Maurice Mejan, was published

The Woman in White is based on a true story; specifically, an actual case of a woman's wrongful imprisonment from Maurice Mejan's 1808 book: Recueil des Causes Celebres.  Wilkie Collins was inspired by the idea of substituted identity and the misuse of lunatic asylums. The case, in particular, was about Marie Douhault who was locked away in a lunatic asylum. Marie's identity was stolen after she had been drugged and placed in an asylum under a flase name. Moroever, she was presumed dead and her estate was passed on to her heirs.

It is important to acknolwedge the 1850s ‘lunacy panic’ within Victorian Society.  In the 1850s, lurid rumours that medical doctors were declaring normal people "insane" in Britain, were spread by the press causing widespread public anxiety. The fear was that people who were a source of embarrassment to their families were conveniently disposed of into asylums with the willing connivance of the psychiatric profession. 

The Baptist War

The Baptist War was an eleven-day uprising led by Samuel Sharpe and 60,000 enslaved Jamaicans. The revolt took place on December 25th, 1831, and was considered the largest slave rebellion in the British Caribbean. On Christmas Day the leaders of the uprising went on strike demanding more freedom and a working wage. They refused to work until their demands were met by the plantation owners. While the revolt was intended to be a peaceful strike, it escalated into a full rebellion when the planters refused their demands. Violence soon erupted in Kensington Estate with sugar cane fields and plantations being burnt to the ground. The rebellion ended in the first week of January 1832 by the force of colonial authorities. As a result of the rebellion, over 200 rebels had been killed and more than 300 hundred enslaved individuals were executed. The Baptist War played a major part in abolishing slavery throughout the British Empire in 1838. 

Momodu, Samuel. “The Baptist War (1831-1832).” Blackpast.org, 22 July 2017, www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/baptist-war-1831-1832/. Accessed 10 Feb. 2024.

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1842 General Strike

In the summer of 1842, workers across Britain organized the first general strike within a capitalist country.  The strike started in North Staffordshire, where coal miners stopped working to demand better wages.  Word spread to other coal mining regions and in August, 800 coal miners gathered in Halifax, a town in West Yorkshire.  This virtually stopped railways, mines, factories, and mills from functioning.  Realizing the power they held by simply refusing to work, over half a million workers across the country then decided to stop working and demanded several things, two being better wages and the right to vote.  This was a monumental moment in the 1840s, however like many suffrage movements of the time, women were not included.  

https://tribunemag.co.uk/2022/08/1842-general-strike-halifax-history-180...

The 1848 Public Health Act

Proposed by Edwin Chadwick in 1848, The Public Health Act was institutionalized in order to improve the health of commoners. This action was a response to their poor health standards and living conditions following a cholera outbreak in 1848. 

In Jane Eyre, Jane is sent to a boarding school where sickness runs rampant and the standard of living is less than ideal. Brontë writes, "Semi-starvation and neglected colds had predisposed most of the pupils to receive infection: forty-five out of the eighty girls lay ill at a time...Many, already smitten, went home only to die: some die at the school, and were buried quietly and quickly; the nature of the malady forbidding delay" (141). Following a typhus outbreak in the school, the school takes a turn for the better with the appointment of a new headmaster. The new authority cleans up the poor living conditions and the people of the time realize how important sanitation is for the common people to exist healthily and happily. The mistreatment of the less fortunate students at Lowood becomes a metaphor for the broader societal neglect of the disadvantaged. The conditions at the institution were used as a convenient representation of Brontë’s real society in which public health and social reform were only just beginning to be addressed by legislation like the Public Health Act of 1848. 

UK Parliament

Elizabeth Barrett Browning, AURORA LEIGH

. . .

The Matrimonial Causes Act of 1857

Marriage and divorce had been fairly uncontested throughout history up until 1850 when Prime Minister Lord Russel established the Royal Commission on Marriage. This commission was meant to evaluate the state of marriage in the UK and the findings were used to create the Divorce Bill of 1854 and 1856. This bill was delayed and hotly contested by the Parliament- however, at this point, women's issues were beginning to reach a boiling point and by delaying it, the government inadvertently turned the bill into more of a feminist issue. 

The Matrimonial Causes Act of 1857 was pivotal in the history of marriage, as it both legalized and created a procedure for filing for divorce. Before this act, divorces were very complicated to achieve: they were very costly, often being more than £1,000; they could only be granted by a private act of parliament; and they were almost exclusively granted to men. This 1857 Act created a formal Court of Divorce and Matrimonial Causes, which established the grounds for divorce at the time- "men could divorce their wives, as before, on the basis of adultery alone; women, however, had to prove their husbands' adultery in addition cruelty, desertion, incest, rape, sodomy, or bestiality" (Kent, 29). The sexual double standard was enforced heavily through this law, legally enforcing that a woman's infidelity was inherently worse than a man's. Additionally, this act was supposed to extend the reach of the divorce court outside of London, but this was never put into place. However, it did offer some protections for divorced women- it acknowledged and protected her future earnings and property from her ex-spouse.

Hager, Kelly. “Chipping Away at Coverture: The Matrimonial Causes Act of 1857.” BRANCH: Britain, Representation and Nineteenth-Century History. Ed. Dino Franco Felluga. Extension of Romanticism and Victorianism on the Net. Web. 2/8/2024

Wilkie Collins, Woman in White

Originally serialized between 26 November 1859 – 25 August 1860 in All the Year Round, conducted by Charles Dickens,

Establishment of Florence Nightingale's Nursing School

Florence Nightingale with trainees of her nursing school

In 1860, Florence Nightingale was able to use government funds awarded to her after the Crimean War to establish the first secular nursing school. In doing so, Nightingale began to professionalize nursing and provide a sort of headquarters for training in the profession. She also brought more women into the field, which was made more socially acceptable by Nightingale's previous achievements. As a result of the school being opened, more nurses and midwives were able to assist in helping those of lower classes. Many alumna of the school would go on to open their own schools or bring about advancements in the field of nursing. 

Despite the positive actions taken by Nightingale, she was an extremely harmful figure in many other respects. She held outdated views on medical theory, which means that she likely influenced generations of nurses in a way that hurt the medical field. Additionally, her views on colonialism would have influenced the way she approached medical treatment of non-European people. For example, she saw Indigenous people as lesser than English people. She also contributed to the English imperial project. Altogether, the positive impact that Nightingale had with her nursing school is largely negated by all the harmful beliefs and practices she perpetuated. The school still exists in a form today; however, it is part of King's College London. 

Sources:

Florence Nightingale: Her Impact On Nursing And Colonialism | NurseJournal.org

British Journal of Nursing - The legacy of Florence Nightingale's educational reforms for nursing

Unification of Italy

During the 1850's there were many civil wars breaking out among the different parts of Italy. Cities like Venice and Milan threw uprisings against the signing of a peace tready between Italy and Austria, these cities then attempted to create their own governments, and started taking over the Italy that was known as the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. Victor Emmanuel II was ruling over parliament in the North and eventually Count Camillo Benso di Cavour entered the cabinet and imposed laissez-faire economic policies, and started on international commercial treaties to cushion the economic blow of the unification of italy. These policies alarmed the conservatives which aided the rebels in the south. In 1852 Cavour became head of the cabinet and introduced ecclesiastical, judicial, and fiscal reforms. Cavour made an alliance with the west and sent an army to Crimea which did very well, and the North was invited to the Congress of Paris as one of the victors of the Crimean war. After this the war of 1857 occured in which Cavour secretly met with Napoelon III and it was agreed that French troops would prevent Austrian intervention in the battle between North and South, due to this favor Cavour had to give Savoy and Nice to France. After Cavour resigned in 1859, Giuseppe Garibaldi gathered 1000 voulenteers who all wore red and sailed to sicily and then took over the southern part of Italy to meet with the northern forces and unite into the Kingdom of Italy in 1861.

Jamaica becomes a Crown Colony

When the abolishment of the transatlantic slave trade occured the cost of planters increase in Jamaica. Many slaves then moved to different parts of Jamacia, leaving the plantations to family regions farming there. In 1846 the sales price of sugar continued to decline and legislation started to make poor decision on taxations. To try and fix the problems that were happening, Sir Charles T. Metcalfe and James Bruce brought Indian plantation workers in which leaded to the entire planatation system collapsing. 

Due to Govenor Eyre neglecting to find helpful opinions in fixing the conditions that the fields were in for planting, an abundance of meetings started to come up that are protesting, attempting to alleviate the harsh conditions that are occurring on the island. Over time, letters were sent back and forth from George Gordon and Govenor Eyre/ the Queen but nothing was relieved, the Queen shut it down by telling the "middle class" to look within their system to get it fixed. Poor slaves in 1865 rioted a town in Morant Bay, murdering the chief magistrate and 18 other European ancestry. Govenor John Eyre declared marital law and hanging the leader, Paul Bogle along with this aid George William Gordon. In the West Indies many people were in favor of the decison that John Eyre made but those in Britian were in disagreement especially on what should happen to Govenor Eyre. 

Govenor Eyre wanted to break down the government of Jamaica to essentially create a more centralized government. The communicated betweenthe Jamaican government and Colonial goverment was "awkward" or quite silent, so the goal to make Jamaica a Crowned Colony was the goal. In 1866, the Jamacian assembly decided to stripe Govenor Eyre of his responsibilities and declaring Jamaica a crowned colony under Parliment. Killing so many people of color, Governor Eyre was looked down upon in England which brought upon the new governor Sir John Peter Grant. 

https://www.britannica.com/place/Jamaica/British-rule

https://repository.lsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2257&context=grad...

Elliot & Fry

Elliot & Fry was a photography studio founded by Joseph John Elliot and Clarence Edmund Fry in 1863. As a photography studio in the Victorian era, their primary task was taking photographs that represented the era socially, culturally, scientifically, politically, and artistically. They had a photography studio at 55 Baker Street in London from 1865-1886 and then expanded their holdings to both 55 and 56 Baker Street from 1887-1908. 

According to footnote 1 on page 75 of The Romance of a Shop by Amy Levy, "...there were several concurrent photography establishments on Upper Baker and Baker Streets in the 1880s." This footnote is followed by the Lorimer sisters establishing their own photography studio at 20B Baker Street in London. As the novel is set in the 1880s, it can be inferred that, if the Lorimer sisters were not fictional, they would have been competing with Elliot & Fry at 55 and 56 Baker Street just down the road. This fictional scenario is a result of Amy Levy's attention to detail throughout The Romance of a Shop, ensuring that she was knowledgeable in the subject that she was writing about in order to create a story that was not only engaging but accurate. 

Tuberculosis at its worst

Tuberculosis is a disease that attacks an individual's lungs and makes it very difficult for the victim to breath, eventually suffocating them. Tuberculosis has existed alongside humans for a long time, there is evidence that proves tuberculosis was present in certain Neolithic human settlements in the Mediterranean. There have also been findings of tuberculosis and it's mycrobacterial infection in mumified Egyptians. It was believed that tuberculosis was something that you would inherit if your family had a history of tuberculosis illness. Therefore, it wasn't believed that it was easily transmissible. In the 18th and 19th centuries tuberculosis was often referred to as consumption, or rather, "comsumption of the lungs". Treatments for tuberculosis included bloodleting, using purgatives, a healthful diet, exercise like horseback riding, and in the final stages opiates would be administered. It was not until 1865 that it was thought tuberculosis may be contageous. A Parisian military doctor by the name of Jean Antoine Villemin proved that tuberculosis could be transmitted from infected animals to healthy ones through innoculation. The real infectious agent in tuberculosis is the bacterium known as bacillus, which was discovered in 1882 by German physician Robert Koch. Victims of tuberculosis were often described as melancholy as they would waste away because of the disease. Symptoms of late stage tuberculosis included loss of body weight, skin pallor, and suken in eyes. It wasn't until the late 1800's that tuberculosis was even added to an encyclopeida. By this time, however, the dangers of tuberculosis were becoming well understood, but there was no cure that would accurately prevent or treat the infection until the 20th century. Some famous victims of tuberculosis include John Keats, Frederic Chopin, and all of the Bronte sisters. 

Source: Tuberculosis - History, Causes, Treatment | Britannica

Sheridan Le Fanu, Carmilla

Published in The Dark Blue  in four installments between 1871 and 1872.

Grosvenor Gallery

Grosvenor Gallery opened in 1877 as an independent gallery. It was founded by Sir Coutts Lindsay  and his wife Blanche(full name Caroline Blanche Elizabeth Lindsay), with her family's money.  became quite important to the aesthetic movement as it hosted many artists of the movement. Generally it hosted artists that were not particularly established at the time. The gallery also did not require artists to join as members.  This was in contrast to the Royal Academy which would not accept these less traditional artists. According to the Yale center of british art  “it supported some of the most progressive and important artists of the period” It was said to be quite popular as it hosted work that was new, different and controversial, even if its broader acceptance did make exhibits eclectic. Oscar Wilde is said to have attended the exhibit and is noted as having reviewed it in 1977 and 1987 for the Dublin University Magazine.

The Grosvenor Gallery and the Aesthetic Movement, victorianweb.org/decadence/grosvenor.html. Accessed 18 Apr. 2024. 

“The Grosvenor Gallery: A Palace of Art in Victorian England.” Yale Center for British Art, britishart.yale.edu/exhibitions-programs/grosvenor-gallery-palace-art-victorian-england. Accessed 18 Apr. 2024. 

Rob. Oscar Wilde’s Review of the Grosvenor Gallery, 1877 (Illustrated), Blogger, 22 July 2022, marlandonwilde.blogspot.com/2020/05/oscar-wildes-review-of-grosvenor.html. Accessed 18 Apr. 2024. 

Rob. Oscar Wilde’s Review of the Grosvenor Gallery, 1879 (Illustrated), Blogger, 28 Aug. 2023, marlandonwilde.blogspot.com/2020/05/oscar-wildes-review-of-grosvenor_12.html. Accessed 18 Apr. 2024. 

Victorian Art Institutions: Academies, Schools, Galleries, victorianweb.org/art/institutions/1.html#grosvenorl. Accessed 18 Apr. 2024.

The Dublin Castle Scandal of 1884

In 1884, Irish Nationalist William O’Brien attacked Dublin Castle—the seat of the English government in Ireland—by accusing British officials of practicing sodomy. O’Brien was building up a case against Gustavus Cornwall, the head of the Irish post office, when Cornwall sued him for libel. During the trial, a “gay subculture” which existed amongst the Irish upper-class was discovered. Cornwall was accused of engaging in homosexual behavior through various upper-class locations, events, and networking. It was also suggested that many of Cornwall’s partners were soldiers. These trials thus did not only undermine the British that existed in the Irish elite and in governmental positions, but the British army. 

At the conclusion of the trial, Cornwall was sentenced to two years in prison. One of the lawyers associated with the case expressed an attitude towards Cornwall’s behavior shared by much of the public: “[Cornwall’s “crime” is] an abominable crime – a crime so foul that it would be better, ten thousand times better, that he should be charged with one which would send him to an ignominious grave."

The trial ultimately set off a “queer paranoia.” Following Cornwall’s case, eight more suspected sodomites were put on trial. One of these suspected sodomites was the head of Ireland’s detective department. The Irish nationalist cause, through the newspapers and the media, used these trials to tie the British parliament and army to homosexuality.

The Labouchere Amendment on Age of Consent

Since women are seen sexually inncoent and passive and men were seen as lustful and had great desires this act was put into place. This act was titled "An Act to Make Further Provision for the Protection of Women, Girls, the Suppression of Brothels and Other Purposes," it was not only created to increase the age of consent from 13 to 16 years old. This also applied to women between the age of 16 and 18 years old under the care of their parents, or above 18 and if detained against her will. The age up was not large or reasonable but it was a step to allowing women to having a voice and being able to voice their comfort sexually. But what is also added to this law was to ban homosexual acts between men. The Eleventh Clause of the Criminal Law Amendments Act stated that, "Any male person who in public or private commits or is a party to the commission of or procures or attempts to procure the commission by any male person of any act of gross indecency with another male person shall be guilty of a misdemeanor and being convicted thereof shall be liable to be imprisoned for any term not exceeding two years with or without hard labor ." We see this act into play with some of the authors we have read since Oscur Wilde and Alan Turning and many other men were convicted and punished under this act.

10 Days in a Madhouse

Nellie Bly was a journalist who immersed herself within what she was writing.  Famously in 1887, she was committed to Blackwell’s Island Insane Asylum for Women after entering a boarding house for working women while claiming she was an immigrant and refusing sleep.  Knowing the stereotypes of immigrants she knew if she claimed this, they would be more likely to be committed. Police were called and she was taken to the asylum. She was in the facility for 10 days, where she witnessed and was subjected to severe beatings, being given spoiled food, little clothing or bedding, being bathed in freezing and unhygienic conditions, and verbal abuse by staff. She also noticed how many of the patients were “normal”.  Several of the women in the facility did not have any mental health issues and were being held anyways. After 10 days of being in the asylum, a male colleague of hers got her discharged (she attempted to tell the staff she was completely fine, however they did not believe her).  After this she wrote 10 Days in a Madhouse, where she exposed the maltreatment of mental health facility patients.

https://www.nyhistory.org/blogs/nellie-blys-ten-days-in-a-mad-house-and-...

The Match Girls Strike

In London's East End there were many factories that lined the streets during this period. Poor women and girls were going to these factories to participate in harsh labor environments to make matches by the thousands in a 14 hour shift. Working in the factory was describe as prison because these girls/ women would be punished for leaving their work space dirty or speaking to others while working. The wage as well was not even close to what was afforable during the time to live comfortably, and could get their wages lowered for acting out or taking an "unscheduled" bathroom break. One of the most dangerous outcomes from working in the match factories was "phossy jaw"; which is a type of bone cancer that is caused from the phosphorus ingredients in the matches and will eventually deform the person's face. 

In July 1888, the strike fully started from a young girl being wrongly dismissed from the factory. A newspaper wrote an article broadcasting all of the harsh conditions which in result caused the managers to force signatures from their workers to refute what was said. When one girl refused to sign, she was fired from the factory and created an uprise from everyone else to throw down their tools and strike. The managers tried to stop the women from walking out but nothing could stop them from going to Fleet Street towards the newspapers. After many years the House of Commons finally passed an act to prohibit the use of phoroporus or any dangerous materials in the creation of matches. The Match Girls Strike also was the leading impowerment for unions to be created for women that are working and changes to occur in the industrial factories. 

Oscar Wilde, Picture of Dorian Gray

Published in 1889,1891

Deathbed Edition of Walt Whitman's "Leaves of Grass" is Released

Leaves of Grass (by Walt Whitman) is a very unique book of poetry, in that it was a collection that kept growing from its first version in 1855. Over the course of almost 40 years, Leaves of Grass expanded and matured from the root to become what it ended up becoming in 1892: an uncensored, unabridged collection of about 400 poems, some of which (like "Song of Myself") being epic in length.

I feel that it's important to mention this book in the context of everything happening in 19th century literature and culture in regards to queerness because Leaves of Grass is rife with sublimated yet very overt queer imagery, especially between men. Oscar Wilde was also a big fan of Walt Whitman's, and they actually met in 1882. To quote Wilde: "the kiss of Walt Whitman is still on my lips."

Source: https://lithub.com/when-wilde-met-whitman/