St. Paul's Cathedral and It's Audience

Because of The Great Fire in 1666 that destroyed approximately 13,500 houses and Old St. Paul’s Cathedral, and other priceless architecture, the 1700s were marked as a period of reconstruction and modernization of the previous medieval city. While the emphasis was placed on rebuilding the city, the displacement and new homelessness of London’s population were severe. Considering the fire occurred pre-insurance, a specific, The Fire Court, was designated for property disputes and financial hardships.  The Great Fire led to today’s insurance industry. The New St. Paul’s Cathedral was constructed by architect Christopher Wren and consultations with the church.  Today, it consists of baroque ornamentation with neo-gothic features such as Portland stone. The church reflected the shift from Catholicism to Protestantism. The church was completed in 1710. Wren oversaw the reconstruction of fifty-two churches In London, twenty-five of which have survived time. Inside the church there is a miniature and layout of Wren’s original design for the church as well as Wren’s gravestone which reads ‘ if you seek his memorial, look about you’. Wren experienced financial constraints for the rebuilding of the cathedral. Within the church, a Nigerian installation titled Still Standing by Victor Ehikhamenor rests next to a plaque that commemorates a British admiral that led the 1897 expedition to gather the African artifacts from the Benin Empire. Current discussion around the return of symbolic and stolen objects is debated, as the British have frequently sought out to control, displace, and capture artifacts from cultures/countries. Within the crypts of St. Paul, colonialism figureheads of the British Empire are housed. Including Horatio Nelson who frequented British occupied Honduras, Nicaragua, and Caicos Islands.  This erasure and blatant celebration of the horrors of colonialism is, personally, one of the most striking features the cathedral has to offer. What privilege it must have been to pillage sacred symbols for display in St. Paul’s, a church that took thirty years to finish construction outliving several generations of children as 74% of children died before the age of five in London during the 1700s(“The History…).St. Paul’s Cathedral remains a social and political hub for reformers to ideally create a greater London.

Davies, Sian. “Five Ways the Great Fire Changed London.” BBC News, BBC, 22 July 2016, https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-london-36774166.

Jhala, Kabir. “Nigerian Installation in London's St Paul's Cathedral Provokes Debate around Restitution and Colonial Monuments.” The Art Newspaper - International Art News and Events, The Art Newspaper - International Art News and Events, 18 Feb. 2022, https://www.theartnewspaper.com/2022/02/17/nigerian-installation-in-lond....

“The History of London.” London's History, https://www.thehistoryoflondon.co.uk/in-brief-early-georgian-london/3/.

The London Infirmary opens

London Hospital, 1888

Since its founding in the autumn of 1740, the Royal London Hospital, initially known as The London Infirmary and then The London Hospital, has been one of the most extensive charities of its kind. According to its website, its aim was “the relief of all sick and diseased persons and, in particular, manufacturers, seamen in the merchant service and their wives and children". As such, it gave much-needed aid to those who needed it the most, i.e. the lower-class individuals that often made their home in the Whitechapel area.
Originally, the hospital was run by a committee of "financial subscribers," but soon switched to a Court of Governors in which a house committee reported to. This would remain the same until 1948 with the founding of the NHS (National Health Service).
In 1990, in commemoration of its 250th anniversary, Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II granted the hospital a royal title, thus making it the Royal London Hospital.
NHS Choices, NHS, https://www.bartshealth.nhs.uk/the-royal-london-our-history.

The Establishment of the British Museum

In 1753, an Act of Parliament created the world's first free, national, and public museum: the British Museum, located in Bloomsbury, London. The current collection of artifacts in the British Museum consists of around 8 million items that span across 2 million years of human history, although only 1% (80,000) of the objects are on public display. One of the largest contributors to this collection was Sir Hans Sloane. He was known as a collector of artifacts from around the world. Upon his death in 1753, he gifted his collection of over 80,000 “natural and artificial rarities” to Great Britain. Thus, the Sir Hans Sloane collection became what is considered the founding collection of the British Museum. These items also became the foundation of the British Library and the Natural History Museum.  

The British Museum’s collection was originally housed in the 17th century mansion, Montagu House. It was refurbished multiple times before and after the museum became open to the public in 1759 to make room for the massive collection. However, more room was still needed to hold the British Museum collection, so in 1823 the Montagu House was demolished. In its place came the museum that we know today, Sir Robert Smirke’s enormous Greek Revival style building. This new home for the British Museum collection was completed in 1852. The British Museum’s building and artifact collection are both being expanded and developed to this day.  

Sources:

“History.” The British Museum, https://www.britishmuseum.org/about-us/british-museum-story/history

“Sir Hans Sloane.” The British Museum, https://www.britishmuseum.org/about-us/british-museum-story/sir-hans-sloane

“Fact Sheet - British Museum.” The British Museum , https://www.britishmuseum.org/sites/default/files/2019-10/fact_sheet_bm_collection.pdf

Opening of the London Tavern

Engraving of the London Tavern in 1809

            During the 18^th century, London was home to many coaching inns and taverns that served as places of rest for travelers. Bishopsgate and surrounding regions were ideal spots for such inns, as, upon the popularization of stagecoach travel in the 17^th century, travelers often entered through Bishop’s Gate, an old Roman entrance to the city (McLachlan). One notable inn from this period is the London Tavern, built in September 1768 on the former site of the White Lion Tavern, which had been destroyed in a fire three years prior. The London Tavern notably featured a large dining room with ornate Corinthian columns and other elaborate ornamentation. According to the contemporary account of John Timbs in his Club Life of London, Vol. II, this dining room could hold at least 300 dinner guests for banquets (274). Timbs also further elaborates on the tavern’s decoration, writing, “The walls are throughout hung with paintings; and the large room has an organ,” (274).

            Even shortly after its opening, the London Tavern was the site of numerous important meetings and events. In 1769, for instance, around 400 men formed the Society of the Supporters of the Bill of Rights in the London Tavern (Cash 249). The Society was dedicated to supporting John Wilkes, a controversial member of parliament who championed the individual rights of people associated with the American Revolution and who introduced the first ever motion in the House of Commons to allow for the voting rights of all adult males (Cash 2). Another London Tavern meeting of historical importance is that of the Revolution Society, a group sympathetic to the ideals of the French Revolution that celebrated the cause of the Glorious Revolution, which met in the tavern in 1789 shortly after the fall of the Bastille (Abstract of History 8).

            In the subsequent century, the London Tavern was also visited by Charles Dickens, who presided over a meeting there in 1841 for the benefit of the Sanatorium for Sick Authors and Artists, and who also attended another dinner there in 1851 for the General Theatrical Fund (“London Tavern”). The London Tavern also makes a direct appearance in Dicken’s novel Nicholas Nickleby (Dickens).

Abstract of the History and Proceedings of the Revolution Society, in London. Revolution

Society, 1790, https://archive.org/details/bim_eighteenth-century_an-abstract-of-the-histo_revolution-society-lond_1790/mode/2up. Pamphlet.

Cash, Arthur H. John Wilkes: The Scandalous Father of Civil Liberty. Yale University Press,

2007.

Dickens, Charles. The Life and Adventures of Nicholas Nickleby, 1839. Project Gutenberg, 2016.

Engraving of the London Tavern in 1809. Wikipedia, 1809.

https://d245m47bicpi64.cloudfront.net/_imager/files/Activities/Archives/46476/WR-3_36ec1335269ad97502c26586ba96154b.png. Accessed 17 Apr. 2023.

“The London Tavern.” The Worshipful Company of Bowyers,

https://www.bowyers.com/meetingPlaces_londonTavern.php. Accessed 17 Apr. 2023.

McLachlan, Sean. “Travel Through Time at England’s Coaching Inns.” British Heritage Travel,

10 Apr. 2023, https://britishheritage.com/travel/travel-englands-coaching-inns. Accessed 17 Apr. 2023.

Timbs, John. Club Life of London, Vol. II. Richard Bentley, 1866.

Construction of Barracks in Knightsbridge

Drawing of the Knightsbridge Barracks

In the 1700s, Knightsbridge was a very different place from what it is now. All throughout the 18th century, Knightsbridge was in very early stages of development with very few new buildings and unpaved, unlit streets, which is a very stark contrast to the Knightsbridge of today. However, following the French Revolution, tensions were high and the threat of soldiers being corrupted by revolutionary influences were very high. Following urban riots in 1792, the government decided the best course of action would be to build barracks in an effort to isolate the soldiers and slow the threat of revolutionary influence on them, so they built a new set of barracks in Knightsbridge. These barracks were quite different from past calvary barracks that had been constructed throughout the years in Britain. 

"Knightsbridge Barracks: The First Barracks, 1792-1877." Survey of London: Volume 45, Knightsbridge. Ed. John Greenacombe. London: London County Council, 2000. 64-68. British History Online. Web. 18 April 2023. http://www.british-history.ac.uk/survey-london/vol45/pp64-68.

The St. Giles Beer Flood

The London Beer Flood occurred on October 17th, 1814 when the pressure from a 1 million pint beer barrel exploded in the Meux & Co's Horse Shoe Brewery, causing many other barrels to break and begin to flood the brewery, into the streets. Around 570 liquid tons of beer crashed into other barrels quickly flooding the brewery. The force of the explosion caused the bricks of the building to collapse and flood St. Giles neighborhoods, killing eight people. 

The clerk in charge of maintenance that day was George Crick, who survived the flood. He noticed a broken 700- pound hoop on the barrel that had slipped off and decided to let another employee fix it the next day. Before long the barrel had exploded from the pressure, covering the St. Giles Neighborhood in mere minutes. Despite his negligence, the clerk and the brewery were cleared of any wrongdoing by a jury and declared that the caulsties lost their lives by an “act of God,” and that they had died  “casually, accidentally and by misfortune.” All of the people inside the brewery survived. 

Anne Saville was one of the casualties, along with four other people mourning the loss of her two year old son at his wake near to the brewery. The people of St. Giles took to the streets, wading through nearly two feet of beer, in search of people who survived by climbing onto furniture. 

The flood occurred in St. Giles which was a parish of Holbourn that would later form the Borough of Camden. The brewery stood on the corner of Tottenham Court Road, and became an attraction after the flood for a short period of time. Watchmen would charge two-pence for people to see the rubble of the accident. The Brewery would suffer an economic loss, but received a break on the taxes that they had already paid the government. 

Works Cited

“Horseshoe Brewery, London, c. 1800.jpg.” 15 Feb. 1906. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Horseshoe_Brewery,_London,_c._1800.jpg Accessed 18 Feb. 2023. 

KLEIN, CHRISTOPHER. “The London Beer Flood.” History.com, A&E Television Networks, 9 Oct. 2019, https://www.history.com/news/london-beer-flood. Accessed 18 Feb. 2023. 

Tingle, Rory. “What Really Happened in the London Beer Flood 200 Years Ago?” The Independent, Independent Digital News and Media, 17 Oct. 2014, https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/food-and-drink/features/what-re.... Accessed 18 Feb. 2023. 

Queen Victoria's coronation

Queen Victoria's coronation by Sir George Hayter

On May 24th, 1819, Alexandria Victoria was born at Kensington palace to Prince Edward and Princess Victoria. At the time of her birth, she was the heir to the throne after her father. He died shortly thereafter when she was eight months old.

On June 20, 1837, at only 19, princess Victoria was informed that she would be crowned queen, as William the Fourth had passed that morning. She was then coronated on June 28th, 1838 at the Westminster Abbey. There were a considerable amount of mistakes on her coronation day, as it was poorly rehearsed. An elderly peer fell down the steps while making his homage to her, and the coronation ring was put on the wrong finger. However, Queen Victoria was still very excited and proud to be queen. 

Queen Victoria, who ruled over part of the industrial expansion of Britain and helped fuel it into an empire, is often known for her relationship with her husband, Prince Albert. Despite being an arranged marriage, the couple was very much in love, and their display of a loving family unit was impactful on the rest of Britain. It changed the cold and stoic ideas normally surrounding the royal family, and also influenced the way romantic and familial relationships functioned in the public - such as their public affection and gift-giving. The couple also contributed largely to the arts; painters, sculptists, and the performing arts. Many of their gifts to each other were commissioned art pieces. Even after death, their love was strong, as Queen Victoria mourned Prince Albert’s death until her own.

Hawksley, Lucinda. “Victoria and Albert: How a Royal Love Changed Culture.” BBC Culture, BBC, 24 Feb. 2022, https://www.bbc.com/culture/article/20150623-victoria-albert-cultural-im....

“Queen Victoria.” Westminster Abbey, https://www.westminster-abbey.org/abbey-commemorations/royals/queen-vict....

“Queen Victoria.” Historic Royal Palaces, https://www.hrp.org.uk/kensington-palace/history-and-stories/queen-victo....

Construction of The Greenwich Theatre

Burnley. The Two Facades of the Greenwich Theatre. Greenwich, 3 Feb. 2007.

The Greenwich Theatre was built in 1855 by Sefton Parry and was used by the great festival of the Greenwich Fair. The original use was mostly by the Richardson traveling theatre that performed frequently to the masses. The theatre shows an interest in growing the population for drama and theatrical performances. The Richardson traveling theatre would visit the area annually and put on performances of all sorts. The theatre would be rebuilt in 1871 and be named the “Crowder’s Music Hall” and have more musically based performances. The actual theatre would be rebuilt multiple times and go under several shifts in its name and type of art performed. It’s interesting to see how as time goes by and the art changes there is still serious interest by the population as time went on. While the theatre would never reach the heights of the Golden Globe and other theatres in London, there was still a population of people who sought to preserve the theatre whenever it was threatened to be torn down. There have been several reconstructions and rebuilding of the theatre, but it has yet to be ever torn down. The original capacity of the theatre was only 423 seats, but it was said that it would be full when the Richardson traveling theatre came to Greenwich. Even during WWII, the theatre was several damaged by an incendiary bomb that torched a good bit of the inside. However, it was reconstructed. To this day, live performances are still being put on. I don’t think that many people would go out of their way to visit the theatre or even stop in passing to see what it was about, but it still holds a sentimental value to the people of the area. The local history of the theatre is what has saved it and rebuilt it every time. 

Sources:

“Our History.” Greenwich Theatre, 13 Mar. 2023, https://greenwichtheatre.org.uk/about/.

“Theatres and Halls in Greenwich, London.” Theatres and Halls in Greenwich, London, http://www.arthurlloyd.co.uk/Greenwich.htm.

GHASTLY MURDER IN THE EAST END: Jack the Ripper terrorizes Whitechapel

Illustration of Jack the Ripper victim

One of the most famous serial killers in history, Jack the Ripper, a psuedonym used to sign several letters, is presumed to be responsible for at least a dozen murders between April 1888 and July 1889, but only five, all committed in Whitechapel in 1888, were linked to a single culprit by police. Dubbed "The Canonical Five," these victims were Mary Ann Nichols (August 31), Annie Chapman (September 8), Elizabeth Stride (September 30), Catherine (Kate) Eddowes (September 30), and Mary Jane Kelly (November 9). All of them were believed to be prostitutes, murdered while soliciting on the street, except for Kelly, who was found murdered in her own home. In all five cases, the victim's throat was cut, and the bodily was mutilated with a level of sophistication that suggested the killer knew their anatomy.

In her 2019 book, Hallie Rubenhold adamantly argued that only Kelly was a verifiable prostitute, and while Stride resorted to such on occasion, had not been at the time of her murder. She holds that "the notion that Jack the Ripper was a murderer of prostitutes was a consequence of the misogynistic and class-based prejudices characteristic of the Victorian era" (Jenkins). Alas, the entire case was handled poorly, perhaps contributing to why it went unsolved.

With the industrial revolution came bigger and better printing presses, and as holds true even today, new outlets will report anything to sell papers. After the body of Mary Ann Nichols is found, The Star reported on "Leather Apron," the name they gave the killer. In their write-up, they pointed blame to Jewish butchers, thus sparking more anti-semitism within the district. Throughout the investigation, three letters were sent to police and press, two signed "Jack the Ripper," and the last signed "FROM HELL".

The first, addressed to "The Boss, Central News Office, London, City," came the night of September 30th, 1888, following the murders of Elizabeth Stride and Catherine Eddowes. The Cental News Agency has received the letter on the 27th, but waited two days to send it to the Metropolitan Police. The entirety of the letter is the author gloating about how he has yet to be caught, the police and press are idiots, he's rearing to kill again, and, this time, he's going to clip his victim's ears and send them to the police. The next day, a double murder, and, sure enough, Catherine Eddowes was missing part of her ear, but they were still intact, suggesting that her killer was interrupted. The second letter, dubbed the "Saucy Jack" letter, as that is what the author refers to himself as, appeared at the Central News Agency, in similar handwriting to the first. Short and sweet, he continues to boast about getting away with his crimes, mentions how he could not get the ears, and thanks police for "holding on" to his previous letter. Though letters kept pouring in after these were released to the public, there's one that many consider to be the final, legitimate letter. Signed "From Hell," the letter was addressed to the head of the Mile End Vigilance Committee, Mr. George Lusk, and contained part of a kidney, the rest supposedly eaten by the author, per his own words. Conflicting opinions on whether or not the kidney was human, on top of horrific misreporting, makes authenticating the letter difficult. As far as I know, it was a prank by some college students. Alas, this only furthers the point that the mass media coverage may have impeded the investigation.

There has been no end to "possible" suspects, but there are three that are the most cited, and, in my opinion, do make the most sense. Those are: Montague Druitt, a barrister and teacher who was said to have an "interest in surgery", proclaimed insane, and was found dead some time after disappearing following the final murder; Michael Ostrog was a Russian criminal and physician who, apparently, displayed "homicidal tendencies," for which he was admitted to an asylum; and, finally, Aaron Kosminski, a Polish Jew who lived in the Whitechapel area, reportedly hated women (especially prostitutes), and was also admitted to a psychiatric hospital following the last murder.

Jenkins, John Philip. "Jack the Ripper". Encyclopedia Britannica, 5 Jan. 2023, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jack-the-Ripper. Accessed 25 April 2023.

Jones, Richard. “The Dear Boss Letter - Yours Truly Jack the Ripper.” The Dear Boss Jack The Ripper Letter., https://www.jack-the-ripper.org/dear-boss.htm.

Jones, Richard. “The from Hell Letter - Received by George Lusk.” The From Hell Catch Me When You Can Letter, https://www.jack-the-ripper.org/from-hell.htm.

Jones, Richard. “The Jack the Ripper Timeline.” The Timeline For The Jack The Ripper Murders, https://www.jack-the-ripper.org/timeline.htm.

The Bloomsbury Group

The Bloomsbury Group was a group of writers and artists that came together to share their creative ideas and give each other support. Along with their shared passion for art, they formed close bonds over their shared political and philosophical views including views on feminism, sexuality, and relationships. These beliefs were considered very modern, progressive, and liberal. 

 Although the Bloomsbury Group was founded in 1905 although it didn’t become known as “The Bloomsbury Group” until 1912. The 10 key members of the Bloomsbury Group include: Venessa Bell (painter), Clive Bell (art critic), Virginia Woolf (writer), Leonard Woolf (writer, publisher, political theorist), John Maynard Keynes (economist, art lover), Roger Fry (painter, art critic), E.M. Forster (writer), Lytton Stachey (writer, critic), Sir Desmond MacCarthy (writer), and Duncan Grant (artist, designer). They would meet at the home of Vanessa Bell and her sister Virginia Woolf at 46 Gordon Square, Bloomsbury, London. On Thursdays, the group's writers would meet at the house, and on Fridays, the group's artists would meet at the house.  

Aside from the fact that all the members of the Bloomsbury Group were remarkable individuals that had a great impact on modern culture within their respective fields, they were also famous for their progressive and liberal lifestyle that infuriated people. Many of the group members were homosexual or bisexual, and they had open romantic and sexual relationships with each other. It's important to remember that the group was founded in 1905 and being gay wasn’t decriminalized in England until the 1967 Sexual Offenses Act.  

The known queer Bloomsbury Group Members: 

-Vanessa Bell: Bi 

-Virginia Woolf: Bi 

-John Maynard Keynes: Bi 

-Lytton Stachey: Gay 

-Duncan Grant: Gay 

The Bloomsbury Group members were decades ahead of their time, in art, philosophy, feminism, and sexuality. They paved the way for modern artistic, literary, and philosophical movements and are important icons in both feminist and LGBT history.  

Sources:

“Lifestyle and Legacy of the Bloomsbury Group.” Tate, https://www.tate.org.uk/art/art-terms/b/bloomsbury/lifestyle-lives-and-legacy-bloomsbury-group

Berry, Elizabeth. “Who Are the 10 Key Members of the Bloomsbury Group?” ETheCollector, 7 Apr. 2023, https://www.thecollector.com/who-are-the-major-members-of-the-bloomsbury-group/

“A Timeline of LGBT Communities in the UK.” British Library, British Library Board, https://www.bl.uk/LGBTQ-histories/lgbtq-timeline#Sexual-Offences-Act

Whitaker, Amy. “'Living in Squares, Loving in Triangles': The Literary Legacy of the Bloomsbury Group.” The Bubble, 10 Apr. 2023, https://www.thebubble.org.uk/culture/literature/living-in-squares-loving-in-triangles-the-literary-legacy-of-the-bloomsbury-group/

First Women Graduate Oxford

Timeline: 100 years of women’s history at Oxford.” University of Oxford

On October 14th, 1920, the first women in University of Oxford history received their degrees. Women had been studying at the University for many years prior to 1920, but were never awarded degrees, and were greatly discriminated against. Women were oftentimes prohibited from attending lectures without a chaperone, and even kicked out by individual lecturers and/or professors. Women could not attend lectures without a chaperone until 1914, and could not lecture at Oxford until 1915. To further elucidate how long some women studied at the University without receiving degrees, consider Annie Rogers. Rogers took her exams for her degrees over forty years before matriculation, and was finally awarded her bachelor’s and master’s degrees in 1920. Other women were present in support of the 130 women who received their degrees that day, including former students and principals of Oxford's women colleges who, ironically, were unable to receive degrees from the University of Oxford.

The matriculation ceremony took place at the University a week prior to the degree awarding ceremony. The ceremony took place in the Oxford Divinity School, which was the oldest building in the University having been built between 1427 and 1483. The building still stands today, and is used mostly for lectures and oral exams. The degree ceremony took place in Oxford's Sheldonian Theatre, which is located in the center of Oxford's medieval city. The theatre was built in 1664 and can still be admired today, as it is considered an "architectural jewel". 

During this time, women all over the world were experiencing extreme resistance in terms of voting rights, education, sexuality, sexual expression, and more. While the 19th amendment was passed in August, 1920 in the United States, legalizing American women to vote, it was not until 1928 that the Equal Franchise Act was passed in England, allowing women to vote. 

Another notable graduate is Cicely Delphine Williams, who was one of the first women to study medicine at the University of Oxford. Just three years later, she became the first female doctor from Jamaica, and ten years after that, she discovered kwashiorkor, an illness caused by insufficient protein intake.

Sources:

“Sheldionian Theatre” University of Oxford https://www.sheldonian.ox.ac.uk/building-history Accessed 20 Apr. 2023

“Timeline: 100 years of women’s history at Oxford.” University of Oxford https://www.ox.ac.uk/about/oxford-people/women-at-oxford/centenary-womens-timeline#:~:text=On%207%20October%201920%2C%20the,they%20could%20take%20their%20degrees. Accessed 20 Apr. 2023.

“1928 Equal Franchise Act” UK Parliament https://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/transformingsociety/electionsvoting/womenvote/case-study-the-right-to-vote/the-right-to-vote/birmingham-and-the-equal-franchise/1928-equal-franchise-act/ Accessed 20 Apr. 2023.

First Bazaar Shop Opens

Mary Quant's First Shop, Bazaar, on King's Road.

 The idea of the “Swinging Sixties” in London and the rise of a youth culture in the decade are intricately linked to the arrival of the miniskirt, popularized by Mary Quant. While she did not invent the style, nor did ever claim to, her store on King’s Road helped popularize it and many other styles important to the time. The opening of her first store, Bazaar, in 1955 with her husband and a friend, was important to the thriving area in the borough, which officially became the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea in the 60s. King’s Road was a popular shopping area at the time, like other areas in the borough further north that sold vintage clothing. Quant herself was an important figure in Chelsea, and her designs became known as the “Chelsea look.”
An important aspect of her designs and success was the culture of the youth in the area. The miniskirt was inspired by London street style, led by young people, and a cultural shift in the post-war period. The 1960s were a time of liberation for a new generation after the Second World War. Mary Quant’s clothing provided young girls with a contemporary style to differentiate themselves from their mothers. While these designs and developments occurred in the 1960s, the opening of her store on King’s Road, and reputation as the leader of the “Chelsea Set,” young artists and socialites that flocked to the area to explore new lifestyles, were critical in the years to follow. After she became frustrated with the clothing available, she began to design her own clothing for the store, which led to her famous designs.
Many styles and items are commonly attributed to Mary Quant: the miniskirt, hot pants, tight sweaters, and vinyl clothing are all included in the list. Her work was featured on the covers of magazines and is always guaranteed a mention when discussing the decade. The Victoria & Albert Museum has many pieces by Quant and had an exhibition on her work five years ago, but some of her designs are still on display today. She passed away in April of 2023.

Mary Quant's First Shop, Bazaar, on King's Road. 25 August 1966. https://www.harpersbazaar.com/uk/fashion/shows-trends/a30873182/mary-quant-designer/. Accessed 17 April 2023.

Nicolson, Juliet. “Legendary Designer Mary Quant Dies.” Harper's BAZAAR, 14 Apr. 2023, https://www.harpersbazaar.com/uk/fashion/shows-trends/a30873182/mary-quant-designer/. Accessed 18 April 2023.
Rackham, Annabel. “Mary Quant: The Miniskirt and PVC Pioneer.” BBC News, BBC, 13 Apr. 2023, https://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-65269428. Accessed 18 April 2023.
“V&A · Introducing Mary Quant.” Victoria and Albert Museum, https://www.vam.ac.uk/articles/introducing-mary-quant. Accessed 18 April 2023.
“V&A · The Miniskirt Myth.” Victoria and Albert Museum, https://www.vam.ac.uk/articles/the-miniskirt-myth. Accessed 18 April 2023.

Brutalism Architecture

The 1900s brought new stylistic approaches to London, a booming city post the Great War. Art Deco, Brutalism, and Post Modernism are among them. Focusing on Brutalist architecture which reigned from 1945 to 1980, it is composed of bare minimum building materials including exposed concrete, and angular shapes. Prominent architects Alison and Peter Smithson referred to Brutalism as “an ethic, not an aesthetic”, which served as an objective way to perceive reality. In addition to this, their goal was to “combine the community of the Victorian slums with the efficiency and density of Le Corbusier’s housing blocks, it instead became known for structural problems and a crippling crime rate and ended the pair’s public career(Goodwin)”. Another goal of their brutalism was to confront observers, travelers, and residents on the realities of their working-class architectural future. These realities included traffic, air pollution, vandalism, and lack of quality. Although not built by Alison and Peter Smithson, Centre Point building in Central London within the St. Giles locale contains major elements of Brutalism. Reaching 34 towers high, it consists of bare concrete grids with glass paneling interior. Construction on Centre Building began in 1963 and was finished in 1966 making it one of London’s first sky-scrappers. Today, it contains flats but previously it was an office space building. After completion, it was vacant for many years and gained the nickname “London’s Empty skyscraper” which, to me, is fitting for Brutalism. With the introduction of a nearby homeless charity, Centrepoint, in 1969, Centre Point garnered little interest from property developers, sellers, and buyers. To me, again, this speaks clearly to Smithson’s ideas of Brutalism. Before it became individual apartment complexes, it was housed by the Confederation of British Industry for 33 years. Today, interior refurbishing led by Almacantar caused less than half its units to be sold. The emptiness and lack of humanness within the apartment at night cause a ghostly feel to it at night.

Davies, Colin (2017). A New History of Modern Architecture. London: Laurence King Publishing. p. 277. ISBN 978-1-78627-056-6.

Goodwin, Dario. “Alison and Peter Smithson: The Duo That Led British Brutalism.” ArchDaily, ArchDaily, 22 June 2020, https://www.archdaily.com/645128/spotlight-alison-and-peter-smithson.

Gould, Mark (16 June 2004). "Community spirit". The Guardian. Retrieved 15 May 2019.

Smithson, Alison and Peter (April 1957). "The New Brutalism". Architectural Design.

Rupert Neate (31 October 2018). "Brutalist market: Flats at London's Centre Point taken off market". The Guardian.

IRA Bombing of Bishopsgate

Image of Aftermath of 1993 Bishopsgate Bombing

            On April 24, 1993, the Irish Republican Army detonated a car bomb outside of 99 Bishopsgate that caused massive damage to London’s financial district, injuring 44 and killing one (“Bishopsgate Bomb”). According to witnesses, most of the windows from nearby skyscrapers were shattered, spreading glass and debris throughout the streets. The explosion also created a large crater near the Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation building (Schmidt). Additionally, the medieval St. Ethelburga’s church and the nearby Liverpool Street station were reduced to rubble. The explosion came a year after another IRA bombing destroyed the nearby Baltic Exchange, while the Warrington IRA bomb killed three children just a month prior (“BBC on This Day”).

            About an hour prior to the explosion, the police received a coded telephone call from the IRA warning about the bomb. Despite some evacuations, a significant number of people were still affected by the blast, often being knocked unconscious (Schmidt). In response to the Bishopsgate explosion and other IRA bombings, the City of London police created a “ring of steel” around the financial district, creating roadblocks and other security measures meant to prevent terrorism (“BBC on This Day”). Many roads into the City were closed or made exit-only, and police monitored routes into the area 24 hours a day (“Bishopsgate Bomb”). Such checkpoints, however, were phased out following a ceasefire with the IRA in 1994 (“New ‘Ring of Steel’”). As a final note, over 2,000 rubbish bins were also phased out following the attack as an added security measure. Rubbish bin totals for the region remain below 100 (“Bishopsgate Gets Bins”).

            As Bishopsgate serves primarily as a financial district, those injured by the blast were predominantly office workers, security, and tourists rather than permanent residents (Schmidt). A security guard at the Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation building was knocked unconscious by the blast, for instance. In the Moorgate Underground station, commuters and other passengers likewise felt the blast—though it caused primarily panic rather than any injury (Schmidt). In total, the IRA bombing of Bishopsgate cost £350 million in repairs, and the “ring of steel” created in response served as a model for later security measures by the City of London police following the 2016 truck attack in Berlin (“BBC on This Day”; “New ‘Ring of Steel’”).

“BBC on This Day | 24 April | 1993: Ira Bomb Devastates City of London.” BBC News, BBC,

24 Apr. 1993, http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/24/newsid_2523000/2523345.stm. Accessed 17 Apr. 2023.

“Bishopsgate Bomb: Photos Issued on 25th Anniversary.” BBC News, BBC, 24 Apr. 2018,

https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-london-43878479. Accessed 17 Apr. 2023.

“Bishopsgate Gets Bins Back 20 Years After IRA explosion.” BBC News, BBC, 14 Aug. 2023.

https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-london-23695239. Accessed 17 Apr. 2023.

Image of Aftermath of 1993 Bishopsgate Bombing. BBC News, 24 Apr. 2018.

https://ichef.bbci.co.uk/news/976/cpsprodpb/7FC7/production/_101011723_29.png.webp. Accessed 17 Apr. 2023.

“New 'Ring of Steel' Planned for London Square Mile.” BBC News, BBC, 24 Dec. 2016,

https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-london-38418877. Accessed 17 Apr. 2023.

Schmidt, William E. “1 Dead, 40 Hurt as a Blast Rips Central London.” The New York Times,

The New York Times, 25 Apr. 1993, https://www.nytimes.com/1993/04/25/world/1-dead-40-hurt-as-a-blast-rips-central-london.html. Accessed 17 Apr. 2023.

Third Restoration of The Globe Theater

The Globe Theater that we will be visiting is not the original but rather the third recreation of the theater in London. It was originally opened in 1599. On June 29th, 1613, the Globe burned to the ground and then was rebuilt on the same foundation and reopened the following year. It was then destroyed again in 1644 after being closed down two years prior due to the banning of theater productions by the Puritans. After the demolition, the land where the Globe once was had homes built overtop of it. During this period, all the theaters in London were destroyed. Actors were beaten and arrested, and there were fines given to those who watched plays. The current Globe is a recreation of the first, with the only changes being important safety regulations and better structural design. This recreation stands about 750 feet away from the ground that held the original. This rebuild was pushed for by the actor/director Sam Wanamaker for 20 years before its final creation. The Globe Theater reopened completely in 1997 but was used for some smaller performances for two years before. It had been 384 years since the theater put on a full-season selection of shows. 

Behind the News, 2018. What is the Globe Theater?- Behind the News. Available at: <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xlqi5k0Z3ps> 

Saunders, J and Beckerman, B., 1963. Shakespeare at the Globe, 1599-1609. Shakespeare Quarterly, 14 (2), p.167

Wanamaker, S., 1989. Shakespeare's Globe Reborn. RSA Journal, Vol. 138 (5401)