In 1025, Guido D’Arezzo revolutionized musical notation by creating the four-lined staff, a primitive form of notation that eventually led to the development of the five-lined staff notation still used in modern music today. This development in musical notation was intended to make it easier for individuals to learn, understand, and memorize new compositions; it was also one of the first movements taken in the process of creating a universal standard for written music. In addition to the four-lined staff, Guido is also credited with constructing the Guidonian Hand (more commonly known as the “do-re-mi-fa” mnemonic system), another musical technique used to make the learning of music easier. With both methods, performers were able to associate sound with sight and become more familiar with pitch and mode.

Sources:

-      

Reisenweaver, Anna J. (2012) "Guido of Arezzo and His Influence on Music Learning," Musical Offerings: Vol. 3 : No. 1 , Article 4. DOI: 10.15385/jmo.2012.3.1.4 Available at: digitalcommons.cedarville.edu/…

Image Source: Oxford University, via Wikimedia Commons

Associated Places

by Jennifer Liu

The Book of Optics (Arabic: كتاب المناظر,  Kitāb al-Manāẓir) is a  seven volume treatise by Abu Ali al-Hasan ibn al-Haytham, also known as Alhazen. The work explored a variety of topics including light, color, and how the eye works.  Most notably, the work looked at intromission and emission, the two common theories about how vision functioned at the time. Like intromission theory, Ibn al-Haytham argued that rays of light were omitted from objects to be perceived by the eye using the cone of vision model. His work in optics helped to shape the theory of perspective through the medieval and Renaissance periods. This set the foundation for present day perspective and working drawings.

Sources:

The Institute of Ismaili Studies. “Ibn al-Haytham or Alhazen.” Ibn al-Haytham or Alhazen | The Institute of Ismaili Studies, iis.ac.uk/encyclopaedia-articles/ibn-al-haytham-or-alhazen.

The Pittsburgh Conference on Analytical Chemistry and Applied Spectroscopy, Inc. “The Father of Modern Optics - Ibn al-Haytham's Book of Optics.” AZoOptics.com, 14 July 2017, www.azooptics.com/Article.aspx?ArticleID=925.

Image courtesy of History of Science Collections, University of Oklahoma Libraries. Image is public domain {{PD-1996}}.

Associated Places

by Emily Maneke

One of the oldest buildings in the city, the Florence Baptistry served its titular religious function for notable Florentines including Dante Alighieri and the Medici Family. Besides its important religious role, the Baptistry was also seen as a pinnacle of Florentine art and architecture leading up to the Renaissance. Constructed between 1059 and 1128, the Baptistry exemplifies the Florentine Romanesque style with its façade of white and green marble, geometric panels, domed arches, and octagonal dome. The interior art includes byzantine mosaics depicting traditional religious themes such as the Last Judgement.

While representing art from multiple periods across its long life, the Baptistry is often touted as the birthplace of the Florentine Renaissance. This distinction is due to its three sets of bronze doors, particularly the north and east doors completed by Ghiberti between the years of 1401-1452. The artist was commissioned to design bonze panels for north doors after winning a competition against other notable artists including Brunelleschi and Donatello. After gaining acclaim for the realistic and emotion filled depictions of the New Testament scenes on these doors, the artist received a commission for the east doors, which were so magnificent they were dubbed “The Gates of Paradise” by Michelangelo and were later recognized as the foundation of Renaissance sculpture.

“Baptistry of San Giovanni.” Il Grande Museo Del Duomo, www.museumflorence.com/monuments/3-baptistry.

Levinson, Gilon. “ Florence, Baptistry: Colored Accents, Designer Doors.” Architecture Past Present & Future, 2009, www.architectureppf.com/chapter_6/Florence_Baptistry.aspx.

Image: By Ricardo André Frantz (User:Tetraktys) (taken by Ricardo André Frantz) [CC BY-SA 3.0 (creativecommons.org/licenses/b…)], via Wikimedia Commons commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fil…

Associated Places

by Stephanie Andress

Watermills have been in existence since antiquity. Evidence exists for their use, by both the Romans and the Greeks, and from them the technology was spread throughout Europe. Vitruvius, the classical architect who would so greatly influence Leonardo da Vinci, created the first known diagram of a Watermill. By the middle ages, this technology was ubiquitous. The date of this event refers to the year of the Domesday book, a proto-census of England. The book showed, among other things, that in England alone there were 5,624 watermills, a number that would increase in the coming centuries. Thus when Leonardo experimented with watermills, it was an immensely practical study, one that could impact the lives of people across the continent. Overwhelmingly, these mills were used to grind grain, a staple of the European diet. However, in some cases there is evidence that the mills were used to power other industries, and this seemed to be increasingly the case as time went on. Leonardo’s own work would focus on expanding possible uses for the mill. The water mill, was one of the most important pieces of medieval machinery.

Thorkild Schhøler (1989) The Watermills at the Crocodile River: A Turbine Mill Dated to 345–380 a.d., Palestine Exploration Quarterly, 121:2, 133-143

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watermil…

Picture by Pierre 79, retreived from Wikimedia Commons, fair use

Associated Places

by Ian Campbell

The Crusades were a series of religious wars between Christians and Muslims over the land of Palestine. During the time of the Crusades, the East was more advanced than Europe in terms of civilization. The knowledge gained by crusaders included new advancements in science that helped liberate the minds of Europe. The mental activity that resulted created the final intellectual outburst of the Renaissance. The Crusades also helped to establish Venice as a wealthy center for trade, which increased its power and reputation. The Crusades were a turning point for Europe, exposing them to new discovery and undermining feudalism.

Sources:

“The Crusades.” History.com, A&E Television Networks, 2010, www.history.com/topics/crusades.

“Effects of the Crusades.” Lords and Ladies, www.lordsandladies.org/effects-of-crusades.htm.

Image Source: The Crusades, 1337. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crusades

Associated Places

by Laila Kassar

The establishment of St. Martial school marked a turning point in medieval music; it’s creation depicted the transition from purely monophonic music to polyphonic. The introduction of polyphony arose in tandem with developments in art, science, and philosophy; one could even argue that the advancements in the latter subjects catalyzed the evolution observed in music. St. Martial school is widely recognized for its teaching of organum, an early form of polyphony, and was influential in the formation of the Notre Dame school of polyphony in 1160. Contrary to the name, the Notre Dame school was not a physical institution, but a group of composers that experimented with organum and developed polyphony, the most notable composers being Leonin and Perotin.

Sources:

-      

The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica. “Organum.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, inc., 12 Nov. 2010, www.britannica.com/art/organum.

-      

“Saint Martial school.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 17 Feb. 2018, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Martial_school.

Image Source: Paris, Bibliotheque Nationale, via Wikimedia Commons

Associated Places

by Jennifer Liu

Although windmills had already been in use in the Middle East for centuries, they were not introduced into Europe until sometime in the 13^th century. There is some debate as to whether or not this technology, like so many other late medieval innovations, was brought back from the Middle East as a result of the crusades. Windmills, like watermills were a vital part of everyday life, being used to pump water, to saw wood, and to grind grain. Especially this last use was incredibly important as it allowed those who did not live near a river to grind their grain far more efficiently, by saving them from grinding by hand, or having to transport the grain to a distant mill. While this innovation occurred before the Renaissance proper, and outside of Italy, it bore with it many similarities to renaissance innovations, such as a desire to utilize the knowledge of non-Christian cultures, as well as to create things of practical worldly use. Leonardo’s work with water power thus, was happening in an era full of innovations in the field of making nature work for mankind. 

Pelikan, Bob. "Windmills." National Driller 31, no. 2 (2010) 12, 14, 16.

Image created by Lourdes Cardenal , retrieved from Wikimedia Commons, Fair use

Associated Places

by Ian Campbell

 In 1176, Peter of Colechurch began constructing London Bridge, now referred to as Old London Bridge, over the River Thames. Completed in 1209 shortly after Peter's death, the stone bridge served as a commercial crossing that housed both businesses and residences. The bridge consisted of a wooden drawbridge centered between 19 ogive arches spanning 15 to 34 feet. It wasn't until Old London Bridge was replaced in the 1820s that a span of over 100 feet helped bridge the Thames.

Sources:

Billington, David P. “Bridge Engineering.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 2 Aug. 2017, www.britannica.com/technology/….

---. “London Bridge.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 7 May 2013, www.britannica.com/topic/Old-London-Bridge.

City Bridge Trust. “History.” City Bridge Trust, www.citybridgetrust.org.uk/about-us/history/.

The image is public domain {{PD-UK-unknown}}.

Associated Places

by Emily Maneke

Sometime in the late 13th century, the verge and foliot assembly, also known as a verge escapement, was invented in Europe. This mechanism used an oscillating gear and a balance wheel to turn a shaft in small, equal amounts at a steady rate. This was a major advancement for mechanical technologies, as this allowed for mechanical clocks to be constructed. These clocks were more accurate than previous methods of time measurement such as water clocks, sundials, and marked candles. Additionally, they were more reliable and required less maintenance. Although more advanced mechanical escapements were created in the following centuries, this was the first mechanical device that let man create his own time, rather than let nature determine time for him. Soon, this new technology was put into use in town clocktowers around Europe, especially England and Italy. One of the earliest mechanical clocktowers was believed to be constructed in the Palace of the Visconti in Milan, Italy, in 1335 AD. This new method of timekeeping spread quickly across Europe and enabled societies to agree on the time of day with relative accuracy, influencing how social events and daily lives alike were conducted.

Sources: Wade, Caleb. “The Verge Escapement.” Gearhead. 2018. gearhead.engineering/the-verge…. Accessed 8 Mar 2018.

Lienhard, John. “The First Mechanical Clocks.” Engines of Our Ingenuity. 2000. www.uh.edu/engines/epi1506.htm. Accessed 8 Mar 2018.

Image: Wikipedia Commons, public domain. commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fil…

Associated Places

by Derek Jones

Duccio di Buoninsegna's rendition of the classic piece Madonna and child displays the changing paradigms of Byzantine and Renaissance art. Returning to the idea of anagogic space, Duccio makes use of the gold background and angels in the upper corners to maintain the Byzantine ideals of religion being set about the material world. However, he does drop the two-dimensional halos so often found in Byzantine artwork. The gold background does detract from the Renaissance ideals of realism and depth, but Duccio manages to encompass an emotion within the expression and movements of the woman and child that is rarely seen within Byzantine art. Their faces, extremely individualized as compared to previous style, represent a more affectionate relationship as one might see between a mother and child than can be seen in the traditional Madonna and Child which focuses more on religious symbology than on any form of realism. Duccio's combination of new and old ideals displays how he was painting in the midst of this shift in paradigms, and how often times changing art styles is an exceedingly long process which often has reversions to old practices and values. 

Sources:

Belting, Hans. “The ‘Byzantine’ Madonnas: New Facts about their Italian Origin and Some Observations on Duccio.” Studies in the History of Art 12 (1982): 7-22. JSTOR. Web. 25 Feb. 2018.

Stubblebine, James H. “Byzantine Influence in Thirteenth-Century Italian Panel Painting.” Dumbarton Oaks Papers 20 (1966): 85–101. JSTOR. Web. 25 Feb. 2018.

Image Source:

Image courtesy of www.wga.hu/html_m/d/duccio/var… 

Associated Places

by Alicia Geoffray

The Hospital of Santa Maria Nuova was founded in 1288 by Folco Portinari, following the urging of his family matriarch. Over the centuries, the institution would become increasingly rich and powerful due to donations of both money and artwork, receiving even a visit from Pope Martin V in 1419.

This hospital would, around 1507, provide the location and resources needed for da Vinci to perform his careful and thorough dissections of human cadavers, including an elderly gentleman whose death he personally witnessed. In the time he worked at this institution, Leonardo would dissect upwards of 30 corpses, using techniques such as wax modeling to observe the anatomy of the cranial cavities, and creating glass replicas of the aorta to study fluid flow.

Sources:
"Hospital of Santa Maria Nuova." en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospital…. Accessed 8 Mar. 2018.
"Leonardo da Vinci: Anatomist." Jones, Roger. Br J Gen Pract 2012; 62 (599): 319. DOI: 10.3399/bjgp12X649241

Image source: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Chi…

Associated Places

by Shelly Tan

Santa Maria del Fiore, or the Florence Duomo, was constructed over the course of over 140 years under the supervision of multiple head architects. The cathedral was commissioned by the Florence city council in order to replace an ageing church dedicated to Saint Reparata. The initial designs of the cathedral were completed by Arnolfo di Cambio, however, after his death these plans were modified and enlarged. In 1366 final designs for the nave were finalized by a committee of artists and artisans. During this period, two factions formed: those in favor of a smaller, more conservative dome, and those in favor of a larger dome seen as "the more honorable" and "the more magnificent" option. This more daring plan was decided upon, ensuring Florence would have the largest and most magnificent church in Europe at the time. However, the size of the cathedral as well as its irregular octagonal knave posed a significant problem for the completion of the structure. While the main structure of the nave was completed by 1380, a solution to constructing a dome to top it was not determined until 1418.

“ Florence Cathedral in 1392.” On Architecture, Columbia University, www.learn.columbia.edu/ma/htm/sw/ma_sw_prim_flor_cath_1392.htm.

“Florence Cathedral.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 28 Feb. 2018, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florence_Cathedral.

“Florence Cathedral.” Archinomy, www.archinomy.com/case-studies/946/florence-cathedral.

image courtesy of  www.travelingintuscany.com/eng…

Associated Places

by Stephanie Andress

Towards the end of the 13^th century, many of the polities of central and northern Italy came to political settlements to resolve decades of unrest between nobles, merchants, artisans, and the rest of the people. In 1293, Florence passed the "Ordinances of Justice," establishing its guild-centric republican government, while Padua and Ferrara chose monarchical rule. Venice, meanwhile, after the civil consternation that resulted in riots in 1266 and 1275, passed the "Serrata," or Closing, of the Great Council in 1297, generally understood as constitutional legislation that cemented the republican system and defined the families that constituted the ruling class of nobles.

The Great Council itself, created in 1142, held no direct power, but elected members of the nobility to nearly every position within the government. Every senator, ambassador, judge, as well doge himself was chosen by the Council. Originally with only 35 members, the body grew in size into the hundreds and even thousands over the coming centuries along with the population of the noble class.

The Serrata, which closed the Council to those not of the ordained families, has come to be seen more in its historical context, less of a discrete, decisive event – which plays to the mythology of the Venetian Republic, which came to its end 500 years later in 1797 – and more as the cumulative result of a decades-long process that saw the expansion and delineation of the nobility as well as the tempering of the “populo.”

Sources:

FitzSimmons, A. K. (2013, December). The Political, Economic, and Military Decline of Venice Leading Up to 1797. University of North Texas. Retrieved March 2018, from search.proquest.com/docview/16…

Rosch, G. (2000). The Serrata of hte Great Council and Venetian Society, 1286-1323. In J. J. Martin, & D. Romano, Venice Reconsidered: The History and Civilization of an Italian City State, 1297-1797 (pp. 67-88). Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.

Image Sources:

Sailko, under Creative Commons use, via Wikimedia Commons

Associated Places

by Tyler Stagge

Constructed between 1302 and 1359, Giotto’s Campanile is one of the best examples of the Florentine Gothic style of Architecture in the city. The bell tower is overlaid with red, green and white marble similar to the other structures in the Piazza del Duomo and is characterized by its many geometric panels and carved lozenges. Additionally, the top levels of the bell tower were designed to increase in size at higher levels, using forced perspective to make each level appear the same size.

The sculptural artwork on the exterior of the Campanile is particularly of interest as well because, as each new level of the tower was constructed, the clear shift in artistic stylings from a variety of periods is shown. The lowest level uses bas (low) relief to depict the creation of man. The next set are created on blue backgrounds in what is considered a nod to the backgrounds often used in Giotto’s paintings and show themes such as “The cardinal virtues” and “The Liberal Arts”. Above that are several levels of statues ranging from the stylized Byzantine forms of Andrea Pissano to the realistic and individualized renaissance sculptures of Donatello. The Bell tower demonstrates the clear shift in Medieval to Renaissance not only through the progression of art styles, but also through the themes these works depict, which is laudatory of human creativity and creation.

 Trachtenberg, Marvin. The Campanile of Florence Cathedral: "Giotto's Tower.". New York, New York University Press, 1971.

“Giotto's Bell Tower.” Il Grande Museo Del Duomo, www.museumflorence.com/monuments/4-bell-tower.

Image: By Julie Anne Workman (Own work) [CC BY-SA 3.0 (creativecommons.org/licenses/b…)], via Wikimedia Commons commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fil…'s_campanile-263.jpg

Associated Places

by Stephanie Andress

Established in 1310 with the intent to preserve the peace and protect the people from abuses of power, the Council of Ten gained power throughout the early 14^th century, rapidly becoming a “chief force of justice” (FitzSimons).

The members of the Council of Ten – like the Doge, all the members of the Senate and courts, and other government officials – were elected by the Great Council. In addition to those members, the Signoria – which includes the three chiefs of the Quaranta Criminale court, the six Ducal Councilors, and the Doge – were present at all meetings.

Among its purposes, the Council worked to counter any actions or plots that may be taken or made against the Republic. The body’s small size facilitated this role, enabling it to make quick decisions in relative secrecy. In 1319, The Council established its own police force, the Capi di Sestiere, which along with two previous forces, patrolled the six political divisions of Venice, pursuing criminals and enemies of the state alike. As such, the Council of Ten, along with the courts and heavy taxes, played an important role in preventing popular rebellion and maintaining peace and order.

Sources:

FitzSimmons, A. K. (2013, December). The Political, Economic, and Military Decline of Venice Leading Up to 1797. University of North Texas. Retrieved March 2018, from search.proquest.com/docview/16…

Horodowich, E. (Philadelphia). A Brief History of Venice. 2009: Running Press Book Publishers.

Image:

Created based on the information provided by the source above.

Associated Places

by Tyler Stagge

Giotto di Bondone’s Ognissanti Madonna, or Madonna Enthroned, is a tempera on panel which is currently housed in Uffizi Gallery of Florence, Italy. Although currently housed in a gallery, this painting was originally designed to be placed on the high alter for the Ognissanti Franciscan church in Florence. The painting itself represents a conglomerate of painting styles and techniques. The gold and flattened background harkens to the Byzantine style or religious symbology and anagogic space. The icons themselves, Madonna and the Child, also appear stiff and stylized, even made larger in an unrealistic scale difference from the rest of the piece to display their distinction from the material world even further. However, Giotto’s technique is advanced in that he managed to represent a more lifelike rendition of three-dimensionality than usually seen in the Byzantine style. Giotto uses the fabric of the robes around the Madonna to show folding and dimension, and he even uses a bit of shading to give the idols he paints more volume. Another interesting feature of the painting is the throne on which Madonna rests, which is exceedingly decorated and elaborate and also highly reminiscent of Gothic architecture.

Sources Used:

“Giotto, The Ognissanti Madonna (Madonna Enthroned).” Khan Academy. Khan Academy, n.d. Web. 28 Feb. 2018.

“Ognissanti Madonna.” Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 8 Sep. 2017. Web. 28 Feb. 2018.

Image courtesy of Wikipedia, page titled Ognissanti Madonna. Image is Public Domain.

Associated Places

by Alicia Geoffray

Generally accepted as the first true anatomical dissection manual since Galen’s works in Ancient Greece, Mondino de Luzzi’s Anathomia corporis humani, completed in 1316, became widely distributed after its printing in Padua in 1478. Distinguishing himself from previous scholars who declared the study of anatomy unnecessary, De Lucci opens his work stating that human beings are superior to other animals, and therefore are worthy of study. Anathomia provides detailed sketches and of many major organs, such as the stomach, heart, lungs, and vascular system. It also offers insight into his dissection procedure. While in many cases De Lucci’s interpretations are inaccurate, like his description of the stomach as spherical, his work marked enormous progress in the study of the human form. Anathomia is considered a classic text, and for many centuries used as a reference for many training physicians, including those in the Renaissance.

Sources:

Miranda, Efrain A. “Mondino de Luzzi.” Medical Terminology Dictionary. Clinical Anatomy Associates, 24 Feb., 2014. Web. 15 Feb. 2018. Link

Image courtesy of Wikipedia, page on Mondino de Luzzi, titled Anathomia 1541. Image is public domain 

Associated Places

by Thomas Knowles

Once the discovery of gunpowder was brought to Europe, it was quickly adopted and used for war. The Loshult Gun, also known as a hand cannon, is the earliest example of gunpowder-based European artillery, dating between 1330 and 1350. The cast bronze barrel would be ignited by a glowing iron placed directly on the gunpowder touch hole at the back of the gun and would fire projectiles such as rocks, iron bolts, or arrows. It is estimated that the Loshult Gun could successfully penetrate medieval armor and hit targets at about 200 meters. This technology would slowly evolve into an early prototype of the breech-loading cannon invented in the late 14th century.

These early firearms were first primarily used between the English and French during the Hundred Years' War (1337-1453), however they were not very effective. The cannons were hindered by a short range and limited mobility as well as ineffective projectiles. Despite their inability to inflict massive, devastating physical damage, they proved successful in delivering psychological damage. Similar to the Chinese's use of fireworks to scare their enemies, early cannons struck fear into their targets, making them a somewhat effective war tool. The Siege of Orleans in 1428 is a prime example of early cannon warfare. In combination with defenses such as scalding oil, hot coals, and rope nets, cannons proved effective in the defense of Orleans, killing a notable amount of soldiers. 

Sources:

“Loshult Gun.” Wikimedia, Wikimedia Commons, 24 Nov. 2016, commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Loshult_Gun.jpg.

“Gunpowder artillery in the Middle Ages.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 21 Feb. 2018, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunpowder_artillery_in_the_Middle_Ages.

MD, Kurt Buzard. “Guns, Gunpowder and Longbows During the Hundred Years War.” Travel To Eat, 15 May 2014, traveltoeat.com/guns-gunpowder-and-longbows-during-the-hundred-years-war/.

Image Source: Bibliothèque nationale de France [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons

Associated Places

by Steven Mazzochi

The Milan Cathedral, or Duomo di Milano, is in Milan, Lombardy, Italy. Its construction began in 1386, but construction stopped from 1402 to 1480 due to lack of funding. When construction started up again, the largest obstacle delaying completion was the structural design of the tiburio, or crossing tower. Both Leonardo da Vinci and Donato Bramante, another Italian architect, were very involved in attempting to find a solution to this problem. Da Vinci’s design was not chosen by the architects to solve this stability problem. A cross vaulted ceiling was designed to support the tiburio, as well as the 135 spires that define the façade of the cathedral. Officially, the Milan Cathedral didn’t reach completion until 1965 because it was continuously added to over the course of six centuries.

Sources: “Milan Cathedral.” Wikipedia, 30 Jan. 2018, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milan_Cathedral.

Bruschi, Arnaldo. “Donato Bramante.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 2 May 2017, www.britannica.com/biography/Donato-Bramante#ref19909.

“Architecture Analysis Milan Cathedral.” Pah Nation, 2018, www.pahnation.com/architecture-analysis-milan-cathedral/.

Image Source: Wikimedia Commons

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milan_Ca…

Associated Places

by Scott Lenz

The creation of the harpsichord signified a drastic evolution within musical instruments. Although its predecessor, the organ, also included a keyboard-like component, the organ was primarily played using hydraulics or air. On the other hand, the harpsichord produced sound by “plucking” metal strings; it was the first instrument to combine strings with a keyboard. The harpsichord, in conjunction with the development of polyphony, is thought to have played a major role in Renaissance compositions, as its design allowed for the use of intricate musical forms and techniques. This revolutionary instrument would later pave the way for the piano in 1709 by Bartolomeo Cristofori, and presumably influenced Da Vinci’s Viola Organista (circa 1489).

Source:

-      

Newman, William S. “A Capsule History of the Piano.” American Music Teacher, July 1963, pp. 14–15.

Image Source: Frederick Litchfield, Wikimedia Commons

Associated Places

by Jennifer Liu

The transition between the Medieval era into the Renaissance was marked by significant changes in philosophy, the most notable being the evolution from societal conformity to a focus on individualism and autonomy. This switch is reflected in the characteristics and style of Renaissance music; for instance, the increased use of solos within music. Typically, music was uniform; no performer stood out above the rest. In addition, Renaissance music is characterized by heavy embellishments, a conspicuous contrast to the Medieval era, in which music was created purely for religious purposes and therefore lacked any “unneeded elements.” The Renaissance style of music is reminiscent of society’s growing emphasis on the secular.

Sources:

-      

Tomlinson, Gary, and James Haar. Renaissance Humanism and Music. European Music, 1520-1640, Boydell & Brewer, Boydell Press, 2006, pp. 1–19.

Image Source: NGA, via Wikimedia Commons

Associated Places

by Jennifer Liu

The early 15^th century saw the development and widespread use of oil paints in fine arts. Although some version of oil-based paints had been used for painting small details since the 13^th century, they were not used as the main medium for painting until the Renaissance. There are several reasons artists of this period chose to adopt oil paints. The medium that dominated painting prior to the Renaissance was tempera, a mixture of colored pigments and a binding agent such as egg yolk. Tempera paint is permanent and very fast drying, meaning that once the paint was laid down the artist had very little time to alter or improve their work. As Renaissance artists began focusing more on achieving greater realism, they felt limited by the short time frame allowed by tempera paint. This led them to utilize oil paints, which have a much longer drying period that enables the artist to continuously update their work. In addition to this, oil paints have greater variation in the opacity and transparency of the pigments. This characteristic allows the paint to be layered and creates greater depth and more saturation of color. Because of these characteristics, oil paint was the dominant medium of the Renaissance.

Associated Places

by Lauren Krieger

After the completion of the main structure of the cathedral in 1418, a design for the dome over the nave remained to be determined. According to Michael Raeburn "The construction of the dome of Florence Cathedral (was) one of the germinal events of Renaissance architecture...The problem had been posed in the middle of the fourteenth century when the definitive plan for the octagonal crossing had been laid down. The diameter of the dome at 39.5 metres (130 feet) precluded the traditional use of wooden structuring to support the construction of the vault, while the use of buttresses as in northern Gothic cathedrals was ruled out by the building's design." With these issues in mind, the head architect was selected by Florence’s Wool guild through a competition in which the prospective architects were purportedly tasked with balancing an egg upright on a slab of marble. Filippo Brunelleschi won the challenge, beating his rival Ghiberti, who had early beat him in the competition for the baptistry doors. In his design for the dome, Brunelleschi was able to innovatively solve the problem of spreading due to hoop stress through his us of the catenary arch and vertical ribbing, and also invented new machines for hoisting materials to the dome and was responsible for one of the first patents to protect his inventions. The dome was completed in 1436 and became a symbol of Florentine Innovation, described by Alberti as "A structure so immense, so steeply rising toward the sky, that it covers all Tuscans with its shadow".

“Florence Cathedral.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 28 Feb. 2018, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florence_Cathedral.

“Florence Cathedral.” Archinomy, www.archinomy.com/case-studies/946/florence-cathedral.

Image courtesy of Wikimedia commons commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fil… {{PD}}

Associated Places

by Stephanie Andress

The Renaissance was witness to one of the first notions of "city planning", designing a city rather than allowing it to grow and develop naturally over time. Sforzinda was one of the first ideal cities designed in the 15th century by Antonio di Pietro Averlino. It's designed in an eight point star wall configuation inside of a cirular moat. Each point of the star was to have a guard tower and half the streets had canals for material transportation.

This design was a large departure from the crowded Medieval cities that had domiated Italy previously. Leonardo Da Vinci studied the designs for this city, which was never built, when developing his own take on the "ideal city".

Sources: “Sforzinda.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 14 Oct. 2016, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sforzinda.

“The Ideal City.” The Ideal City - Leonardo Da Vinci - Museoscienza, www.museoscienza.org/english/leonardo/models/macchina-leo.asp?id_macchin....

Associated Places

by Scott Lenz

Often considered the end of the Middle Ages, the fall of the Byzantine Empire marks a significant shift from the medieval to the renaissance. Constantinople was constructed to be an impenetrable fortress able to withstand any siege. However, the Ottoman Empire made effective use of gunpowder and artillery to destroy the indestructible. Even the might of Constantinople was overcome by the Ottoman "super cannon," the Dardanelles gun. Weighing 16.8 tons and measuring 27 feet in length, the Dardannelles gun was capable of delivering crippling damage at a range of 1.5 miles. The siege engineer behind such a destructive power, Orban, was contracted by Sultan Mehmet II to produce a weapon strong enough to end Constantinople. Orban is quoted as saying, "I can cast a cannon of bronze with the capacity of the stone you want. I have examined the walls of the city in great detail. I can shatter to dust not only these walls with the stones from my gun, but the very walls of Babylon itself." Though the Dardanelles Gun was very effective in destroying the walls of Constantinople, it required large teams of men to operate, and could only be fired seven times per day to prevent cracking. Still, the Ottomans, armed with their superior siege weaponry, were able to bring about an end to the Christian Roman Empire. The destruction wrought by such a machine could not be described better than by a soldier in charge of firing the gun, who said, "And when it had caught fire, faster than you can say it, there was first a terrifying roar and a violent shaking of the ground beneath and for a great distance around, and a din such as has never been heard. Then, with a monstrous thundering and an awful explosion and a flame that illuminated everything round about and scorched it, the wooden wad was forced out by the hot blast of dry air and propelled the stone ball powerfully out. Projected with incredible force and power, the stone struck the wall, which it immediately shook and demolished, and it was itself shattered into many fragments, and the pieces were hurled everywhere, dealing death to those standing nearby." 

Sources:

“The Guns of Constantinople.” HistoryNet, 13 Apr. 2016, www.historynet.com/the-guns-of-constantinople.htm.

Bunting, Tony. “Fall of Constantinople.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, inc., 5 Sept. 2017, www.britannica.com/event/Fall-of-Constantinople-1453.

Kamel, Marwan. “Ottoman Super Cannon: The bombard that built an empire.” All About History, www.historyanswers.co.uk/medieval-renaissance/ottoman-super-cannon-the-b....

Associated Places

by Steven Mazzochi

Arguably the most important factor in Leonardo's interest in anatomy was Andrea's urging for all of his pupils to have an excellent grasp of it. Leonaro's apprenticeship, however, would have begun not with immediate collaborations with his teacher, but instead with simple chores like preparing canvasses. In the process, the importance of anatomy in painting, along with many other technical skills, was likely impressed upon him.

Many of the new painting techniques of the Rennaissance can be seen in Verrocchio's work, including the use of perspective in backgrounds, heightened through atmospheric distortion and sfumato. It may also be noted that Leonardo was fond enough of Verrocchio to continue collaborating with him even after the former had his own workshop.

Sources:
"Leonardo da Vinci." en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo…. Accessed 8 Mar. 2018.
"Andrea del Verrocchio." en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrea_d…. Accessed 8 Mar. 2018.

Image source: www.pubhist.com/w21323

Associated Places

by Shelly Tan

Leonardo da Vinci was fascinated with the moon and its physical properties. He studied it intently and came to simpler conclusions based on the complex observations he collected. One of his boldest conclusions was that the Moon contained water, or was made of water. His skills as an artist allowed him to understand the movement of light and its reflection properties on different surfaces such as land and water. He was also aware of the transmission of light from one celestial body to another as well as the optical properties of the Moon. Combining his knowledge and interest in astronomy with his understanding of light properties, he came to the conclusion that the moon was made of water, or at least contained water. In his notebooks, he demonstrates his belief that the Moon had an abundance of water through illustrations and descriptions. He believed that waves on the Moon were responsible for how the sun’s light reflected off of the moon and onto Earth. It is interesting to see that on this same page he showed an allegiance to the Ptolemaic system, describing that the sun and moon orbit the Earth. This is important because it illustrates that he was finally testing the limits of the knowledge of his time, and soon he would question the system that had been accepted for the past 1400 years.

Sources:"NASA, Da Vinci, and The Moon." Suli. 30 Mar. 2012. suliwrites.wordpress.com/2012/…. Accessed 28 Feb. 2018.

Ivan. “The Leonardo Notebooks.” Ancient code. ancient-code.com/ancient-manus…. Accessed 14 Mar. 2018.

Image source: NC Museum of Art, Public Domain. Da-Vinci-Codex-NCMA_726_668_80_s.jpg.

Associated Places

by Rachel Lee

Leonardo da Vinci’s contribution to astronomy is not as well known as his works in subjects such as art and architecture but, his astronomical findings do not go unnoticed. Most of da Vinci’s findings were later proved to be incorrect, but his curiosity would spark thought in many others after him. Leonardo’s immense intellectual curiosity and advanced power of observation would lend a hand to many of his astronomical findings but most importantly, his design of a telescope. His design of a possible telescope is not widely known so, the concept and design of the telescope is attributed to Galileo Galilei. Though Leonardo never built his device, it is evident that he explored the possibility and concept of it. The designs in his notebook describe the telescope as being able to “magnify the moon” and even wrote specifics about the dimensions and design, for example the thickness of the glass he would use to look through. Leonardo da Vinci had a great appreciation for the moon and was captured by its mystery, this is why he proposed the telescope, to discover more about the moon. His idea of the telescope is very interesting because he was beginning to push the boundaries of knowledge and start discovering the universe for himself. These were the ideas that were promoted by the Renaissance and would in turn, change the world.

Sources: Livio, Mario. "The Da Vinci Astronomy." Huffingtonpost. 6 Dec. 2017. www.huffingtonpost.com/mario-l…. Accessed 27 Feb. 2018.

Image source: Huffington Post, Public Domain. www.huffingtonpost.com/mario-l…

Associated Places

by Rachel Lee

As designed by Brunelleschi, the lantern at the top of the Duomo was intended to be crowned by a large golden orb and cross. The job of creating and placing this orb was contracted to Verrocchio’s workshop in 1468, at which time Da Vinci would have been a teenager in his apprenticeship. The orb itself was constructed out of eight copper panels soldered together and leafed in gold. When finished, the piece measured eight feet in diameter and weighed over two tons. As an apprentice in Verrocchio’s workshop, Da Vinci had a hand in the creation and placement of the orb on top of the Duomo. While creating a piece of this size was itself a feat, the greatest challenge proved to be lifting the orb over 350ft to the top of the lantern. To do this, cranes and hoists designed by Filippo Brunelleschi for the construction of the cathedral’s dome were used to fix the ball in position in 1471. While it is not proven that Da Vinci had a hand in this project, many suspect he had a role as he mentions the solder used on the ball in his notes on parabolic mirrors (c. 1515) and included detailed sketches of Brunelleschi’s hoisting mechanisms in his Codex Atlanticus (c. 1570).

Nicholl, Charles. Leonardo Da Vinci: the Flights of the Mind. Penguin, 2007, erenow.com/biographies/leonardo-da-vinci-the-flights-of-the-mind/.

Image:

By sailko (Self-photographed) [GFDL (www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html), CC-BY-SA-3.0 (creativecommons.org/licenses/b…) or CC BY 2.5 (creativecommons.org/licenses/b…)], via Wikimedia Commons

Associated Places

by Stephanie Andress

Leonardo Da-Vinci was well versed in many disciplines including anatomy and physiology. At the age of 20 he conducted his first post-mortem autopsy which he was granted with special permission due to being an artist. It is not rare for artists to perform autopsy studies but Da Vinci researched further into anatomy than most other artists by becoming interested in internal organs and not just muscle structure. Da vinci studied joints, movement, organs, bones, disease, body proportion, and many many other features of the human body. His study of body movement, muscles, and joints were for artistic purposes; to properly convey a motion or structure to the figures in his paintings. The rest of his studies were mostly for exploration and discovery about the human body. Da Vinci would complete around 30 human dissections over the course of his lifetime and many animal dissections. Along with these dissections he would also accumulate a vast amount of extremely detailed drawings of the anatomy he observed.

Sources:

Keele, Kenneth D. Leonardo Da Vinci’s Influence on Renaissance Anatomy. Medical History 1964. Vol 8 (4): 360-370. Print.

Sterpetti, Antonio V. Anatomy and physiology by Leonardo: The hidden revolution?. Surgery 2016. Vol 159 (3): 675-687. DOI:doi.org/10.1016/j.surg.2015.10…. Accessed March 8, 2018.

Sterpetti, Antonio V. The Revolutionary studies by Leonardo on blood circulation were too advanced for his time to be published. Journal of Vascular Surgery 2015, vol 62 (1): 259-263. DOI:doi.org/10.1016/j.surg.2015.10… . Accessed March 8, 2018.

Image Source:

Sterpetti, Antonio V. Anatomy and physiology by Leonardo: The hidden revolution?. Surgery 2016. Vol 159 (3): 675-687. DOI:doi.org/10.1016/j.surg.2015.10…. Accessed March 8, 2018.

Associated Places

by Amanda Gozner

This portrait of Ginevra de’ Benci by Leonarda da Vinci represents an important shift in the subject matter of artwork during the Renaissance. In the preceding medieval period, art was dominated by religious subjects. However, the rise of humanism and the renewed interest in ancient Greek and Roman art during the Renaissance led artists to explore new subjects including landscapes, portraits, nudes, and still lifes. These new themes mark a distinct move away from religion and a focus on secular ideas, individualism, and glorifying earthly beings. This would have been considered blasphemous previously, but the new ideals of the Renaissance celebrated the individual. However,  religious artwork was still widely produced during the Renaissance but the introduction of these values would form the basis of the subject matter for all subsequent periods in art history.

Sources

Nelson, Robert S. Visuality before and beyond the Renaissance: Seeing as Others Saw.

Cambridge Univ. Press, 2000.

Stokstad, Marilyn, and Michael W. Cothren. Art History. Upper Saddle River, NJ:

Pearson/Prentice Hall, 2011. Print.

Image Retrieved from Wikimedia Commons, fair use

Associated Places

by Lauren Krieger

Leonardo da Vinci conceptualized the idea for a self-driving cart many centuries before automobiles or robotics. In fact, a working model of da Vinci's design was created by modern scientists in 2006 at Italy's Institute and Museum of the History of Science in Florence, according to an ABC News article (see source below). Incredibly enough, the prototype was successful in moving without being pushed. Da Vinci’s design used coiled springs, and had both steering and brake capabilities. It was designed to operate autonomously, with wound-up springs rotating the wheels of the cart after a brake was released. Prior to movement, the cart could be adjusted such that it would travel in any direction based on if the steering was set at any preset angles. According to the same ABC News article, researchers at the Armand Hammer Center for Leonardo Studies in Los Angeles (see source below) said da Vinci's design has many similarities to the Mars Rover, a vehicle capable of autonomous travel on the surface of Mars. Many people today believe da Vinci’s self-propelled cart to be the world’s first robot.

Sources:

“Self-Propelled Cart.” Leonardo Da Vinci's Self-Propelled Cart Invention, 2008, www.da-vinci-inventions.com/se….

Lorenzi, Rossella. “Da Vinci Sketched an Early Car.” News in Science, 2004, www.abc.net.au/science/news/stories/s1094767.htm.

Image Source : xiquinhosilva (commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fil…...), "Leonardo da Vinci Self Propelled Cart", creativecommons.org/licenses/b….

Associated Places

by Chiranth Kishore

The Codex Atlanticus is a collection of twelve notebooks containing a compilation of sketches and writings by Da Vinci collected by Pompeo Leoni. The topics of the codex range across a variety of subjects, from science and technology to town planning  to music. Within the codex are drawings of several machines for lifting an moving heavy weights including hoist and crane mechanisms. It is suspected that Da Vinci’s drawing of these machines may be based off the mechanisms designed by Brunelleschi during the construction of the Florence Duomo which were used by Verrocchio during the time Da Vinci worked in his studio.

“Codex Atlanticus.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codex_Atlanticus.

“LEONARDO DA VINCI - Codex Atlanticus.” Museo Galileo: Institute and Museum of the History Ans Science, brunelleschi.imss.fi.it/genscheda.asp?appl=LIR&xsl=manoscritto&lingua=ENG&chiave=100776.

Image Courtesy of: Museo della Scienza e della Tecnologia "Leonardo da Vinci" [CC BY-SA 4.0 (creativecommons.org/licenses/b…)], via Wikimedia Commons

Associated Places

by Stephanie Andress

Leonardo Da Vinci’s Madonna of the Carnation is currently displayed in the Alte Pinakpthek gallery in Munich, Germany. This rendition of the Madonna and Child was originally thought by art historians to have been painted by Andrea del Verrocchio; however, it is now agreed that Da Vinci created this piece. An oil painting on panel, the Madonna of the Carnation made use of a new medium of the Renaissance. This painting depicts Mary sitting with an exceedingly chubby and somewhat disproportionate baby Jesus on her lap. She holds a carnation, a symbol of healing, in her left hand. Da Vinci illuminates the faces of Mary and the Child but darkens the background through shadowing using the technique of chiaroscuro, which he later masters. The baby Jesus is looking upwards while Mary is looking down – neither are looking at the other. The folds and shadowing of their clothes are suggestive of depth, and the background of mountains and the blue sky adds to this feeling as the background becomes blurred in the distance, melding into the horizon.

Sources Used:

Feinberg, Larry J. “Sight unseen: vision and perception in Leonardo’s Madonnas: in the first of two articles on Leonardo da Vinci, Larry J. Feinberg explains how the artist’s interest in the way the eyes work influenced his realistic depictions of the Christ Child as a baby learning to see.” Apollo 159.509 (2204): 28-34. GALE. Web. 28 Feb. 2018.

“Madonna of the Carnation.” Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 24 Nov. 2016. Web. 28 Feb. 2018.

Image Courtesy of Wikipedia, page titled Madonna of the Carnation. Image is Public Domain.

Associated Places

by Alicia Geoffray

Leonardo Da Vinci was living in a world engulfed in war, having been born just after the Hundred Year's War, and living through the beginning of the Spanish Italian Wars in 1494. As a self-proclaimed weapons designer, Da Vinci was fascinated with improving upon and developing new ways to destroy an enemy. In his notebooks, there are over 10 designs for different siege weapons, cannons, and guns, many of which are reproduced and on display in Italy, designed from the original sketches in the Codex Atlanticus. Such weapons include his three-barreled cannon, 33-barreled organ, and his varieties of elevating gear cannons.  The primary focus of these weapons was to inflict as much damage possible through a machine that was easier to operate and more effective than previous light artillery of the time. For example, the Da Vinci Museum of Science and Technology describes his triple barrel cannon as being, "...a different specimen of light artillery: the gun carriage is easy to handle and it has three front-load guns. To improve firing accuracy, the three guns can be adjusted in height by means of a peg mechanism. (The Collection of Models)" This type of adjustment and agility is revolutionary in that it allows the user to not only fire 3 shots at once, but also be able to precisely aim without a team of multiple men. His two very similar single barrel cannon designs also involve a precise aiming system of either pegs or screws.

Sources:

John. “Bensozia.” Leonardo's Cannon, 1 Jan. 1970, benedante.blogspot.com/2011/06/leonardos-cannon.html.

in History, Technology | April 7th, 2016 3 Comments. “Leonardo da Vinci Draws Designs of Future War Machines: Tanks, Machine Guns & More.” Open Culture, www.openculture.com/2016/04/leonardo-da-vinci-draws-designs-of-future-wa....

“Triple Barrel Canon.” Leonardo da Vinci's Triple Barrel Canon Invention, www.da-vinci-inventions.com/triple-barrel-canon.aspx.

“The collection of models.” The collection of models - museoscienza, www.museoscienza.org/english/leonardo/models/.

Associated Places

by Steven Mazzochi

The Ideal City is the name given to three strikingly similar paintings that show some of the ideals of Italian Renaissance work. They demonstrate a respect for Greco-Roman antiquity, ideals of city planning, and show mastery of central perspective. The Ideal City of Baltimora is done by Fra Carnevale and includes an amphitheater that resembles the Roman Colosseum. On the opposite side of the painting, an octagonal building with a steeple on top suggests the medieval Baptistry in Florence. The two buildings reflect the values of security, religion, and recreation as well as the emphasis on Roman ideas in new, ideal urban designs. The illusion of space is achieved using the receding lines that converge at a center point in the city. 

Sources:

“The Ideal City.” The Walters Art Museum, art.thewalters.org/detail/37626/the-ideal-city/.

Onniboni, Luca. “The "Ideal City" in three Renaissance paintings.” Archiobjects, 18 Nov. 2014, archiobjects.org/the-ideal-city-in-three-renaissance-paintings/.

Image Source: The Walters Art Museum, art.thewalters.org/detail/3762…

Associated Places

by Laila Kassar

Although there is no evidence that any of Da Vinci’s church designs were actually constructed, he sketched many floorplans and elevations in his notebooks. Most of these sketches experimented with a central-plan design, where all outside rooms were centered around a main room. His church floor plans usually featured a square or circular center room with semi-circle or square rooms surrounding them.  Da Vinci utilized his mathematical background profusely in his floor plans, experimenting with the proportions of each room as well as symmetrical and asymmetrical designs. In one of his prominent designs, a Greek cross with equally sized legs outlined the center of the church used for mass. Many of Da Vinci’s sketches were done in the 1480s, and were probably influenced by Filippo Brunelleschi, a prominent Italian architect who also used central-plan designs in his churches.

Sources: Xavier, Joao. “Leonardo’s Representational Technique for Centrally-Planned Temples.” Reasearch Gate, Jan. 2008, www.researchgate.net/figure/Leonardo-da-Vinci-Drawing-of-churches-MS-BN-....

Phillips, Cynthia. “101 Things You Didn't Know about Da Vinci.” Google Books, books.google.com/books?id=qvpFDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA106&lpg=PA106&dq=da%2Bvinci%2Bchurch%2Bcross%2Bdesign&source=bl&ots=XuVDtCOeBM&sig=c47NhxgS09TO-7bLu4KRTIH3Cyk&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjykczD5NjZAhXC7oMKHQ9ZAN0Q6AEIPzAH#v=onepage&q=da%20vinci%20church%20cross%20design&f=false.

Teodoro, Francesco Di. “Leonardo Da Vinci: The Proportions of the Drawings of Sacred Buildings in Ms. B, Institut De France.” Architectural Histories, Ubiquity Press, 7 Jan. 2015, journal.eahn.org/articles/10.5334/ah.cf/.

Image Source: Wikimedia Commons: 

upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia…

Associated Places

by Scott Lenz

Leonardo da Vinci’s fascination with space and nature was not limited to the moon, or even a specific celestial body. While da Vinci had a keen interest on the moon and focused quite heavily on its physical properties, he had devoted a vast amount of time to exploring the movements and nature of the solar system we reside in. His immense amount of intellectual curiosity led to one of his most significant discoveries, the lack of movement of the sun. He stated in his notebook “IL SOLE NO SI MUOVE,” which translates to “the sun does not move.” In addition to this statement, he concluded that the earth is not the center of the circle of the sun, nor is it the center of the universe. It is unclear if these thoughts were shared with others or if they just remained in his notebooks for only Leonardo to view. It is obvious that these insights were much too advanced for da Vinci’s time, like many of his other accomplishments and inventions. With this in mind, if he had shared his ideas, they most likely would have been rejected and forgotten only to be proved correct 40 years later by a man named Nicolaus Copernicus. Today, Copernicus is considered to be the astronomer that discovered the sun’s apparent lack of movement.

Sources:

"Leonardo da Vinci." Giants of Science. careers.knoji.com/the-major-ac….  Accessed 28 Feb. 2018.

"I Leonardo." Ralph Steadman Art Collection. Public Domain. www.ralphsteadmanartcollection….... Accessed 28 Feb. 2018.

Associated Places

by Rachel Lee

The modern machine gun stems from Leonardo da Vinci’s concept of the 33-barreled organ. He saw there was an issue with the current cannon technology, in that they took forever to reload and often misfired. His design incorporated 33 smaller guns connected in three sets of 11 guns that were on a rotating platform. After one set of small cannons were fired, the platform could be rotated to the next set, and so on and so forth. At any point in time, one set could theoretically be firing, one set could be cooling from having just been fired, and one set could be reloaded by soldiers. This increased the overall rate of firing from the weapon, which is why it is considered the predecessor to the modern machine gun. Other designs by da Vinci included having cannons fire in a triangular spread to increase the hit area for the artillery fire. The 33-barreled organ was called as such because the adjacent barrels of the cannons looked very similar to the pipes of an organ.

Sources:

“33-Barreled Organ.” Leonardo Da Vinci's 33-Barreled Organ Invention, 2008, www.da-vinci-inventions.com/33….

“33-Barrelled Organ.” Museoscienza, 2018, www.museoscienza.org/english/leonardo/invenzioni/organo33.asp.

Image Source : Leonardo da Vinci (commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fil…...), "Ribauldequins - Leonardo da Vinci studies", marked as public domain, more details on Wikimedia Commons: commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Tem….

Associated Places

by Chiranth Kishore

During the Renaissance in Italy, artist and architects sought to understand how to more accurately portray three dimensional objects in a flat plane. This led to the development of linear perspective, a system of creating the illusion of depth through the use of lines that converge at a single vanishing point on the horizon line. As an apprentice in Andrea del Verrocchio’s studio, Leonardo was introduced to the rules of perspective through De Pictura, a treatise on perspective written by the Italian architect Leon Battista Alberti in 1435. One of the clearest uses of linear perspective in Renaissance art is seen in da Vinci’s perspectival study for The Adoration of the Magi. This piece reflects da Vinci’s approach to creating a three-dimensional space on a flat plan and demonstrates his mastery of linear perspective. 

Sources

Blumberg, Naomi. “Linear Perspective.” Encyclopedia Britannica, Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc. , 17 Mar. 2016, www.britannica.com/art/linear-perspective.

“Da Vinci - The Artist: A True Master of His Craft.” Museum of Science, Museum of Science, Boston, 2018, www.mos.org/leonardo/artist.

Image Retrieved from Wikimedia Commons, fair use

Associated Places

by Lauren Krieger

Leonardo Da Vinci was very interested in the possibility of flight for humans, which explains his extensive study on birds and their ability to fly. This was highlighted through his Codex of Flight of Birds. Though there were extensive drawings on a human-powered flying contraption, called the Ornithopter,  Da Vinci soon came to the conclusion that humans themselves were not powerful enough to support the lift-off of the machine nor were they strong enough to support the machine through the flight. However, the device in itself was brilliant because it modeled the human to be positioned such that center of gravity would enable flight and the wings flapped using a pedal, rod, and pulley system. Lastly, we believe that the machine was also extensively tested for flight, through evidence from his associates however there is no evidence of the creation of the machine itself.

Sources:-

“Flying Machine.” Leonardo da Vinci's Flying Machine Invention, www.da-vinci-inventions.com/flying-machine.aspx.

FLYING MACHINES - Leonardo da Vinci, www.flyingmachines.org/davi.html.

Fuller, John. “Top 10 Bungled Attempts at One-Person Flight.” HowStuffWorks Science, HowStuffWorks, 8 Mar. 2018, science.howstuffworks.com/transport/flight/classic/ten-bungled-flight-attempt2.html.

 Image Courtesy:- Wikimedia Commons, public domain

commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fil…

Associated Places

by Yamuna Ambalavanan

The first practical device that demonstrated the principle of parachuting was developed by Sebastien Lenormand in 1783. Jean Pierre Blanchard actually created the first parachute in 1785, while Jacques Garnerin was able to make a successful descent with a parachute from 3,000 feet in 1797. All of these iterations were steps towards the modern parachute of today, used by both the military and recreational users- for safety and for fun. The origin of all of this was in Leonardo da Vinci’s parachute design comprised of sealed lined cloth held by assorted wooden poles. In his notebooks, next to his original parachute design, were the words "If a man is provided with a length of gummed linen cloth with a length of 12 yards on each side and 12 yards high, he can jump from any great height whatsoever without injury." This parachute was particularly of note because it had a triangular canopy rather than a rounded one. Modern scientists were skeptical of da Vinci’s parachute being able float, until Adrian Nicholas tested a prototype built to da Vinci’s specifications at 3,000 feet in 2000 and proved it to be successful.

Sources:

“Parachute.” Leonardo Da Vinci's Parachute Invention, 2008, www.da-vinci-inventions.com/pa….

“DaVinci's Parachute.” Flying out of This World, 2008, www.flyingoutofthisworld.blogspot.com/2008/02/davincis-parachute.html.

Image Source : Permission granted to share this work by Nevit Dilmen under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License (commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fil…...), "Leonardo da Vinci parachute 04659a", creativecommons.org/licenses/b…

Associated Places

by Chiranth Kishore

Over two thousand years ago, tops consisting of a propeller affixed to a stick were created in China. By using one’s hands to spin the stick, the propeller could achieve lift and hover through the air for a short period of time. This basic concept is reflective in today’s modern helicopters. Leonardo da Vinci sketched designs for his own version of a flying machine, but unfortunately his concept has been determined by modern scientists to not work. This is in part due to him never actually building and testing his idea. However, the concept of using lift to carry a contraption through the sky was still revolutionary. The description "If this instrument made with a screw be well made – that is to say, made of linen of which the pores are stopped up with starch and be turned swiftly, the said screw will make its spiral in the air and it will rise high" was included next to the sketch of da Vinci’s helicopter. It was comprised mostly of a device meant to compress air in order to generate lift- the aerial screw or helical air screw. At full size, da Vinci imagined up a helicopter of over 15 feet in diameter, built out of reed, linen, and wire, which was to be powered by four men turning cranks to rotate a central shaft that turned the aerial screw. In 1796, Sir George Cayley was able to build his own version of a helicopter machine that was powered by elastic devices. Later on, in 1842, W. H. Philips developed a steam-driven model helicopter. All of these incredible designs followed the same principles of generating lift.

Sources:

“Helicopter (Aerial Screw).” Leonardo Da Vinci's Aerial Screw Invention, 2008, www.da-vinci-inventions.com/aerial-screw.aspx.

“Early Helicopter History.” Aerospaceweb.org, 2012, www.aerospaceweb.org/design/helicopter/history.shtml.

Image Source : Permission granted to share this work by Clay Shonkwiler under the Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Generic license (commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fil…...), "Leonardo da Vinci Tank Aerial Screw" creativecommons.org/licenses/b….

Associated Places

by Chiranth Kishore

Leonardo Da Vinci named two of his paintings the Virgin of the Rocks, and these paintings both depict the Madonna and Child with only a few significant details altered. The earlier version is displayed in the Louvre in Paris while the later version hangs in the National Gallery in London. They are both around the same size, 2 meters, and the are both painted using oil on wooden panels, though the version hanging in the Louvre has since been transferred to a canvas. Both paintings depict the Madonna and Child alongside an angel and an infant John the Baptist. The rocky landscape lends to the title of the two pieces. The paintings differ in a variety of minor ways including the techniques of color, lighting, and sfumato. The version hanging in the Louvre is generally considered the earlier painting, and it was likely painted from around 1483 to 1486. This version is regarded as a perfection of the sfumato technique which Da Vinci is known for. The version hanging in London has a less precise date ascribed to it, but it was likely painted before 1508. The main differences between the two paintings are the positioning of the angel, the coloring of the robes, the halos (or lack thereof), and the staff of John the Baptist (or lack thereof).  

Sources used:

Pizzorusso, Ann. "Leonardo's Geology: The Authenticity of the 'Virgin of the Rocks.'" Leonardo 29.3 (1966) 197-200. JSTOR. Web. 28  Feb. 2018. 

“Virgin of the Rocks.” Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 7 Feb. 2018. Web. 28 Feb. 2018.

Image Courtesy of Wikipedia, page titled Virgin of the Rocks. Image is Public Domain.

Associated Places

by Alicia Geoffray

The usage of simple instruments to indicate the direction of the wind has been known since before the Middle Ages. Leon Battista Alberti developed the anemometer in 1450 to measure wind velocity. However, Leonardo da Vinci redesigned the device, making it more accurate and easier to measure wind force. The anemometer functions because a piece of wood is attached to a frame and gets raised by the wind flowing across the contraption. A scale is labeled on the frame and based on the highest location achieved by the moving piece of wood, a relatively accurate measurement of wind force can be determined. Later versions of the anemometer included applications of fluid dynamics, where wind pressure resulted in a liquid column travelling up a tube and the distance traveled being related to wind force. Another style of anemometer by Thomas Robinson in 1845 included a revolving contraption that spun freely in the wind and wind velocity being able to be determined based on the number of revolutions per unit of time.

Sources:

“Anemometer.” Leonardo Da Vinci's Anemometer Invention, 2008, www.da-vinci-inventions.com/anemometer.aspx.

“Windvanes and Anemometers.” Multimedia Catalogue, 2010, brunelleschi.imss.fi.it/museum….

Image Source : Permission to use by Fondazione Museo Nazionale della Scienza e della Tecnologia Leonardo da Vinci - via San Vittore, 21 - 20123 Milano (Italia). “Anemometer - Leonardo Da Vinci.” Museoscienza, 2018, www.museoscienza.org/english/leonardo/models/macchina-leo.asp?id_macchina=20.

Associated Places

by Chiranth Kishore

In 1485, Da Vinci outlined his idea of an “ideal city”. This was a large departure from the previous Medieval cities in Italy, where the city grew naturally and there was no set plan for the locations of waterways or streets. During the plague, almost a third of Milan’s population was killed, so Leonardo wanted to redesign Milan in a way that would reduce the spread of disease and promote efficiency of getting from one place to another. His design featured two separate levels, a lower level of canals for moving goods and common folk, and an upper level for “gentlemen”. To mitigate the chance of another widespread disease impacting the city, Da Vinci planned for the lower level to have a sewer system and the roads on the upper level to be wider than Milan’s very narrow streets so people wouldn’t be as packed together. With regard to the movement of people around the city, he envisioned large wagons and carriages using the lower level streets, making it easier for people on foot to get around on the upper level. Due to the cost of completely rebuilding Milan, Da Vinci’s ideal city was never constructed.

Sources:

 “The Ideal City.” The Ideal City - Leonardo Da Vinci - Museoscienza, www.museoscienza.org/english/leonardo/models/macchina-leo.asp?id_macchin....

“Ideal City.” Leonardo Da Vinci's Ideal City Invention, www.da-vinci-inventions.com/ideal-city.aspx.

Image Source: Wikipedia Commons 

commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fil…

Associated Places

by Scott Lenz

Leonardo da Vinci is widely known for his many engineering designs centuries before anyone else came up with similar ideas. He was a respected artist and inventor, but also was a gifted military engineer. Something that he really understood was the psychological impact of weaponry. Da Vinci came up with several versions of a giant crossbow, comprised of winding gears similar to the compound longbow of today. When his sketches came to life on the battlefield, they spanned 27 yards across. Each device had six wheels for stability and mobility, and the crossbow itself was made of thin, flexible wood. Priming the giant crossbow involved cranking back various gears and loading up the artillery, and any projectile was launched by releasing a holding pin by striking it with a mallet. The crossbow invention appeared to be made to launch large stones or flaming bombs rather than oversized crossbow bolts, which makes it clear that da Vinci meant for this military invention to cause fear amongst enemies rather than merely inflict mass damage and chaos.

Sources:

“Giant Crossbow.” Leonardo Da Vinci's Giant Crossbow Invention, 2008, www.da-vinci-inventions.com/giant-crossbow.aspx.

“Leonardo - Giant Crossbow.” BBC Science & Nature, 2014, www.bbc.co.uk/science/leonardo/gallery/crossbow.shtml.

Image Source : Leonardo da Vinci (commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fil…...), "Leonardo da vinci, Giant Crossbow", marked as public domain, more details on Wikimedia Commons: commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Tem….

Associated Places

by Chiranth Kishore

One of Leonardo Da Vinci’s most well known pieces of work is his depictions of the Vitruvian Man. Originally theorized by Vitruvius, Leonardo depicts the mathematical formula Vitruvius discovered for the proportions of the human body. The figure is idealized and a depiction of humanistic ideology. Da Vinci’s Vitruvian Man applies the perfection of divinity onto a human effectively shifting the limit of perfection away from anagogic space. He places his Vitruvian man in both anagogic and earthly space by placing the figure in both a square (earth) and a circle (anagogic space). By Da Vinci doing this he again places a human figure into anagogic space eliminating the bridge between anagogic and earthly space.

Source and Image Source:

Crothers, Laura. Vitruvian Man Had a Hernia. Slate. February 17, 2014,www.slate.com/articles/health_…. Accessed March 8, 2018.

Associated Places

by Amanda Gozner

Leonardo was known to dislike the state of urban living, describing cities as old fashioned, where people lived crammed together "like a herd of goats." After Filarete's project Sforzinda, Leonardo was also fascinated by the idea of creating a complex, perfect city. The design combines Da Vinci's wide range of talents, and shows his mastery of architecture, engineering, and art. The phrase ideal city refers to perfection of the 'machinery' of the city. His design utilized his invention of locks to make waterways efficient while keep the city's inhabitants safe from violent floods of water. There was also a strong emphasis on hygiene in his design, which included mechanisms for keeping the streets clean as well as preventing water and waste to stagnate. Da Vinci mentions that he believes the city should be cleaned at least once a year. His city's transportation network included different level streets for different purposes of transportation. Overall, his design focused on the possibilities of geometrically perfect solutions to the predicaments of urban life. 

Sources:

“The ideal city – Ms B Fol 16r and 37.” Universal Leonardo, University of Arts, London, www.universalleonardo.org/work.php?id=519.

“The Ideal City.” Museoscienza, Museo Nazionale della Scienza e della Technologia "Leonardo DaVinci", www.museoscienza.org/english/leonardo/invenzioni/citta.asp.

Image Source: "The Ideal City", www.leonardo3.net

Associated Places

by Laila Kassar

One of the most distinct changes art experienced in the renaissance was an evolution in the purpose it served. During the medieval period, the purpose of art was to educate viewers about religion as well as serving as a form of worship. The population during this time was largely illiterate and had very limited access to religious texts, which meant that a visual representation enabled the viewers to directly connect with and worship their religious icons. Artwork in the renaissance, on the other hand, was more concerned with the aesthetics rather than the religious symbolism that it represented.  This is due in part to the rise of humanism which led to an emphasis on the secular ideals of Greek and Roman thought. This painting, Lady with an Ermine by Leonardo da Vinci, is a perfect example of this. The purpose of this painting is entirely secular; it is celebrating the talent of the artist in portraying the beauty and purity of a noblewoman. Such a show of status and wealth would have been considered hubris during the middle ages but in reality, marked the beginning of a new era in art history.

Sources

Stokstad, Marilyn, and Michael W. Cothren. Art History. Upper Saddle River, NJ:

Pearson/Prentice Hall, 2011. Print.

Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. “Lady with an Ermine.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.,

6 Mar. 2018, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lady_with_an_Ermine.

Image Retrieved from Wikimedia Commons, fair use

Associated Places

by Lauren Krieger

Leonardo Da Vinci’s Madonna Litta is currently housed in the Hermitage Museum in Saint Petersburg, Russia. This painting depicts Mary holding Christ as he is breastfeeding. In his left hand the baby Christ holds a little goldfinch which is representative of his future Passion. The painting is within an architectural space which has two arched windows in the background. There is little light within the painting (possibly an attempt towards mastering the technique of chiaroscuro) which make the blue background outside of the windows even more apparent. The windows also display Da Vinci’s technique of sfumato, which allows for a more realistic depth of background in which further away objects become less distinct and blend into the horizon. This painting has been attributed to Da Vinci because within his Codex Vallardi, which is currently housed in the Louvre, there is a metal point drawing of a woman’s face in a near profile which is exceedingly similar to the woman’s face in the Madonna Litta.

Sources Used:

Clark, Kenneth. "The Madonna in Profile." The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs 62.360 (1933): 136–140. JSTOR. Web. 28 Feb. 2018.

“Madonna Litta.” Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 20 Dec. 2016. Web. 28 Feb. 2018.

Image Courtesy of Wikipedia, page titled Madonna Litta. Image is Public Domain.

Associated Places

by Alicia Geoffray

                Leonardo also devised a water wheel. It combines elements of the more effective overshot water wheel with the more conventional water wheel. Here water falling from an aquifer would turn a wheel, which would then turn the blades of a large screw. In this sense, the invention would generate power. However, as water would need to be conveyed up to his aquifer, it was still reliant on human energy. While not practical, the invention makes important theoretical progress. That the wheel is not connected to a millstone, shows Leonardo’s fascination with water and his desire to use it in ways not previously conceived of. He called water the “driver of nature.” He imagined using water to power various processes, including in this case, a drill, possibly in an urban environment. This invention could be seen as a precursor to the modern water turbine. 

Cooper, Margaret. "The Inventions of Leonardo Da Vini." New York: The MacMillan Company, 1965.

Image From: www.sussexvt.k12.de.us/science…...'s%20Water%20Wheel.htm (Fair use)

Associated Places

by Ian Campbell

Fasciculus Medicinae is considered the first printed illustrated medical book. It was published in 1491 by a printing company in Venice. The author of the book is Johannes de Ketham. The book is a compliation of multiple essays written about clinical medicine. 8 subjects are discussed in Fasciculus Medicinae: urine and uroscopy, phlebotomy, judgements of the veins, phlebotomy based on the zodiac, women’s health, surgery, and anatomy. The book contains six woodcut illustrations. The first edition of the book was in Latin and a second edition was translated into Italian and then into vernacular Italian in 1493. Leonardo Da Vinci used the Italian edition of Fasciculus Medicinae as a guid during his dissections and as a source of medical knowledge. Fasciculus Medicinae would be further edited through time to improve illustrations and organization. In addition to this more essays and four new illustrations would be added.

Source:

Dimaio, Salvatore, Federico Discepola, Rolando F. Del Maestro. Il Fasciculo Di Medicina of 1493: Medical Culture Through the Eyes of the Artist. Neurosurgery 2006, 58:187-196. DOI:10.1227/01.NEU.0000192382.37787.80. Accessed March 8, 2018.

Image Source:

Wikipedia

Associated Places

by Amanda Gozner

Research in 2016, by scholar Professor Ian University of Cambridge revealed that scribbles in Leonarda Da Vinci ‘s the  Codex Forster III( Image is shown below) were in fact experiments to determine the laws of frictions. The experiment was about a pulley and weight system, to understand the direct effect of the weight of a block to the amount of friction involved that even students perform today to understand friction. Even though Leonardo Da Vinci has been credited with being the pioneer of Tribology, this particular page marked the beginning of his understanding of this field. 

Sources:

“Study reveals Leonardo da Vincis "irrelevant" scribbles mark the spot where he first recorded the laws of friction.” University of Cambridge, 21 July 2016, www.cam.ac.uk/research/news/study-reveals-leonardo-da-vincis-irrelevant-scribbles-mark-the-spot-where-he-first-recorded-the-laws.

Image Courtesy: Codex Forster III folio 72r Credit: V&A Museum, London

Associated Places

by Yamuna Ambalavanan

Compound Pulley systems were of special interest to Leonardo Da Vinci. This was highlighted by the many sketches of Pulleys that was found in the Codex, and an example of a sketch is given in the picture. The sketch shows a simple pulley system hoist, which is a system that lifts or lowers a weight with the lesser amount of effort with an increase of pulleys present in the system. Moreover, he tried to associate various numbers to the various elements of the system to understand the concept of physics better.

Sources:-

LEONARDO3 - Leonardo da Vinci | MACHINES COLLECTON - COLLEZIONE DELLE MACCHINE, www.leonardo3.net/leonardo/semplici_eng.php.

Image Courtesy:- Wikimedia Commons , private domain

commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fil…

Associated Places

by Yamuna Ambalavanan

In addition to examining friction and wear that contacting elements experience, da Vinci explored the benefits that could be provided via the addition of rolling elements between the sliding plates. While it was known by ancient civilizations that rolling was more efficient than sliding, there is no evidence of the study of how and why this was true.

Leonardo began his iterative design process with disk bearings. However, his studies showed that the wear experienced in the bearings would be more evenly distributed if balls/rollers were used in place of thin disks. One error da Vinci made in his work was failing to observe the differences between roller and ball bearings. In a quote from the Codex Madrid he remarked “I do not see any difference between balls or rollers save the fact that balls have universal motion whereas rollers can move only in one direction.” In fact, balls and rollers do behave differently depending on the type of loading applied (radial or axial).

Regardless of that shortcoming, da Vinci was still very insightful in his observation of the need for individual bearing elements to be isolated. His work showed that if rolling elements contact each other during operation that the friction present between them is too great to gain a mechanical advantage. In contrast, if the elements are kept at a distance and only permitted to contact the two sliding surfaces via the implementation of cages, wear is greatly decreased and movement is much easier.

Tribologists today are still impressed with the insights da Vinci provided in regards to rolling elements.

Source: Reti, Ladislao. “LEONARDO ON BEARINGS AND GEARS.” Scientific American, vol. 224, no. 2, 1971, pp. 100–11.

 Image: Reti, Ladislao. “LEONARDO ON BEARINGS AND GEARS.” Scientific American, vol. 224, no. 2, 1971, pp. 100–11.

Associated Places

by Katelyn Polson

Some of da Vinci’s early work in bearing design centered on the shortcomings of existing designs. He began his work with a series of studies exploring the interaction between objects in contact with one another. The experimental equipment da Vinci designed was an innovation in and of itself. Da Vinci studied what factors contributed to friction and correctly concluded that friction is influenced not only by the types of materials in contact, but also the contact area of the two objects. To decrease friction, Leonardo suggested the use of rollers as well as lubricants between sliding surfaces.

From this work, da Vinci fathered the concept of a “coefficient of friction.” Da Vinci used a value of 0.25 for the coefficient of friction between two “polished” surfaces, which is impressively close to estimates used today (500 years later). This feat is even more impressive due to the mathematical complexity of determining coefficients of friction between nonlubricated surfaces even today.

Alongside friction, da Vinci was also interested in wear (a result of friction). In his day, mechanical objects experienced severe wear and either required frequent maintenance or replacement to maintain functionality. Da Vinci experimentally determined that the direction of wear depended on the load, and was not always vertically downwards, as was previously believed. His experiments also yielded that lubrication alone was insufficient to prevent wear. This led him to investigate the value of rolling elements.

Source: 

Image: www.tribonet.org/wiki/friction…...

Associated Places

by Katelyn Polson

Work done by da Vinci both to understand friction and to design devices to overcome it were documented in his notebooks written between 1493 and 1497. He made observations on principles such as wear and coefficient of friction. These observations led him to understand the value of lubrication, cages, and the impossibility of perpetual motion.

Most of what is known regarding da Vinci’s work on ball bearings comes from the Codex Madrid I. These works were found in 1967 and were written by da Vinci between 1493 and 1497. Previously, scholars had the Codex Atlanticus, which was a more random collection of writings and sketches created between 1483 and 1518. Material in the Codex Atlanticus is considered as drafts upon which da Vinci expanded and improved in Codex Madrid I.  

In these notebooks, da Vinci makes observations and predictions of system interactions that are not far off from the empirical values still used by tribologists today. The designs he proposes are novel and truly innovations that greatly influenced designs that are still considered the most efficient bearing designs today. 

Source: Reti, Ladislao. “LEONARDO ON BEARINGS AND GEARS.” Scientific American, vol. 224, no. 2, 1971, pp. 100–111., www.jstor.org/stable/24927729.

Image: ebooks.library.cornell.edu/k/k…

Associated Places

by Katelyn Polson

Beginning in 1494, King Charles VIII of France launched an invasion of the Italian peninsula. During this time, France had already begun the transition from a semifeudal state to a nationstate, shifting France away from the medieval period toward the renaissance. Upon crossing the Alps, the French army had a significant advantage over the Italians. Their cavalry and infantry were accompanied by small, light mobile artillery that would ensure their victory. The main strategy of the Italian people was to use their heavy walls and fortifications to withstand enemy invasion. However, because of the superior firepower and effective use of cannons by the French, they were able to conquer the Italian cities with ease. The French cannons were far superior to the cannons of the Italians, which were outdated and primitive. The light, cast bronze cannons could be shot quickly and easily, making them effective for destroying walls and terrorizing the Italian population. Because of new gunpowder-fueled siege weaponry, specifically culverins and bombards, the medieval strategy of building fortresses was proving to be obsolete. The significant advancements in cannons and firearms would force the world to redesign cities and defenses, drastically reinventing the way war is waged.

The invasion by Charles VIII was only the first of many invasions of Italy through the 16th century. As the Italian Wars continued for another 60 years, Italy was constantly under threat from both foreign and domestic powers. This ongoing war led to an economic downturn that severely hindered new art or great works in Italy. Not even the church could afford to commission new art. By 1516, Leonardo Da Vinci had already left Italy to find a more welcoming artistic environment in France. By 1527, the Spanish had conquered Rome, costing Italy its "political and individual freedom" (Ewhelan). Ultimately, this would be the beginning of the end of the Italian Renaissance and the beginning of the Counter-Reformation. 

Sources:

The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica. “Italian Wars.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, inc., 4 Mar. 2016, www.britannica.com/event/Italian-Wars.

“Italian Wars.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 21 Feb. 2018, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Wars.

Ruggiero, Guido. The Renaissance in Italy: a social and cultural history of the Rinascimento. Cambridge Univ. Press, 2015.

The Italian Wars, 1494-1559, www.historyofwar.org/articles/wars_italian_wars.html.

“What was the impact of Charles VIIIs invasion of Italy (1494) on the Renaissance?”  - DailyHistory.Org, dailyhistory.org/What_was_the_impact_of_Charles_VIIIs_invasion_of_Italy_(1494)_on_the_Renaissance%3F.

Ewhelan. “Why did the Italian Renaissance End?” Why did the Italian Renaissance End? - DailyHistory.Org, dailyhistory.org/Why_did_the_Italian_Renaissance_End%3F.

Associated Places

by Steven Mazzochi

Leonardos mechanical knight consisted of a suit of armor with a set of gears and pulleys inside designed to mimic human motion. Like his lion, the original knight has not survived, but a modern reconstruction has been made by Mark Rosheim. DaVinci's knight wasused for enternainment  for Lodovico Sforza and his guests. The knight likely would have been powered by springs or a waterwheel, and could have sat, stood, raised its visor, and moved its arms.

Image source: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo…

Erik Moller. Leonardo da Vinci. Mensch - Erfinder - Genie exhibit, Berlin 2005

Information Source: www.leonardodavinci.net/roboti…

No Author. "Robotic Knight - by Leonardo da Vinci." Leonardo da Vinci. Retrieved 8 March 2018

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo…

No Author. "Leonardo's robot". Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 8 March 2018

Associated Places

by Joshua Walker

St. Mark’s Clocktower, located on the Piazza San Marco in Venice, Italy, is an architectural representation of an analog and digital clock with the added embellishments of a Madonna and child, a winged lion, the symbol of Venice, and a bell which two bronze statues (the Moors) ring. The Madonna and Child are made of bronze, and they rest above the analog clock, seemingly looking down over time and space. Space is included in this clock because of the use of the zodiac signs on the clock face, as well as the representation of the Ptolemaic universe in which the sun rotates around the Earth (though the Earth has since been removed from the clock as the Copernican theory of space has become accepted). The Madonna and Child harken back to the Byzantine ideals of anagogic space, and twice a year, at Epiphany and on Ascension Day, the three Magi appear from a doorway which is usually covered by panels displaying a digital clock face. These three Magi, led by an angel, proceed across the clock face and bow to the Madonna and Child. This procession was broken for a long period of time following construction, but in a series of repairs led by Bartolomeo Ferracina from 1757 to 1759, their sequence was fixed. On top of this, the digital clock from which these three magi emerge was also a part of a restoration and enhancement project. In an effort led by Luigi de Lucia from 1858-1866, panels were made in the doorways next to the Madonna and Child which displayed the hour on the left and the minutes on the right, changing every five minutes. One interesting detail about the placement of the Madonna and Child as opposed to the winged lion, is that the lion is raised higher than the other figures, thus implying a sort of superiority of state over religious symbology. 

Sources used:

Muraro, Michelangelo. “The Moors of the Clock Tower of Venice and Their Sculptor.” The Art Bulletin 66.4 (2014): 603-609. College Art Association. Web. 28 Feb. 2018.   

“St. Mark’s Clocktower.” Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 25 Jan. 2018. Web. 28 Feb. 2018.

Image provided courtesy of www.planetware.com/venice/st-m…;

Associated Places

by Alicia Geoffray

One of Da Vinci's most enduring creations was the miter lock. It was immediately put into use in Milan, then spread across the world, and is now used today in almost any waterway. Previous lock designs would take one or two men to move the locks up against the force of gravity. This design utilizes horizontal movements to open and close the lock. The miter lock is the joining of two walls at a 45 degree angle. This allows them to push against each other when faced with the force of oncoming water, making their bond tighter. This invention is just one of the many examples of how Leonardo Da Vinci was a revolutionary engineer of his time. The design was completed in MIlan in 1497. 

Sources:

“The Canal Lock.” Leonardo Da Vinci's Inventions, www.leonardodavincisinventions.com/civil-engineering-inventions/leonardo....

“Leonardo's Miter Gate.” Linda Hall Library, civil.lindahall.org/mitergate.shtml.

Image Source: Linda Hall Library, civil.lindahall.org/mitergate.…

Associated Places

by Laila Kassar

Da Vinci’s work on ball and roller bearings was hugely useful in helping him to design other larger inventions. With his knowledge of the advantages of bearing use and design of to improve their implementation he was able to create many other novel inventions which would not have been possible if only sliding contacts were used.

For example, both da Vinci’s self-propelled cart as well as his armored car (tank) would not have been possible without bearings. In his armored car, there were a number of cannons mounted to a circular platform that could rotate 360 degrees. The rotation of a large and heavy platform could only be made possible via the use of rolling element bearings. Similarly, his sketches of a self-propelled cart relied heavily on bearings. In 2006 when scholars built a model of the cart based on his sketches, it was able to work. Again, this was enabled by ball bearings.

Many others of Leonardo da Vinci’s inventions made use of bearings as well. Almost every design that included two contacting elements moving relative to each other was improved and made more possible thanks to improvements in bearing design via race ways and cages as well as lubrication. Designs such as da Vinci’s flying machine, while not feasible due to weight to lift ratio limitations, was still improved via the incorporation of bearings. His robotic knight, like many modern robots, contained several moving parts who’s motion was made easier and less resource intensive due to bearings.

Today the uses of bearings are limitless. They can be found in simple toys such as fidget spinners as well as complex, high speed manufacturing lines and autonomous robots.

Sources: 

Image: www.leonardodavincisinventions…...

Associated Places

by Katelyn Polson

In the first decade of the 16th century, a German locksmith from Nuremberg named Peter Henlein began using springs to power clock mechanisms. Winding the “mainspring” stored energy, which was slowly released over time, turning the hand of the timepiece. Because spring could be made much smaller and stiffer than a traditional verge escapement mechanism, the weight and size of Henlein’s timepieces were significantly reduced. This breakthrough led the clock from being a tower-sized mechanism in the center of town to a small pocket- or wall-sized device that wealthy gentlemen could carry around with them throughout the day. However, these early mainspring watches still had their faults. Naturally, the clock would run faster initially, when the spring was tightly wound, and slow down as the spring became loose. Later, a solution to this problem, the “fusee” was developed to release the tension of the spring over time more evenly. The ability of an individual to have access to a relatively accurate timepiece anywhere they went had a significant impact on the daily lives of people in 16th century Europe, allowing activities throughout the day to be recorded with more precision than ever before.

Sources: “Spring Driven Clocks.” 2018. www.merritts.com/merritts/libr…. Accessed 8 Mar 2018.

Bellis, Mary. “Spring-Powered Clocks.” The History of Mechanical Pendulum Clocks and Quartz Clocks. 7 April 2017. www.thoughtco.com/history-of-m…. Accessed 8 Mar 2018.

Image: Wikipedia Commons, Public Domain. commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fil….

Associated Places

by Derek Jones

Leonardo da Vinci wrote about a clock design that was more accurate than the clocks of his time in his book, Codex Atlanticus. He did not invent the clock, but he did make improvements to the current design. Da Vinci’s clock had two separate mechanisms for both minutes and hours, comprised of weights, gears, and harnesses. There was also a dial that kept track of changing moon phases, and he incorporated diamonds and rocks in the design. The biggest change from the conventional clock of the time was that da Vinci utilized springs instead of weights to operate his clock. However, his design was never brought to fruition. By the 17th century, pendulums were incorporated into clock design and brought new innovation to traditional clock design.

Sources:

“Clock.” Leonardo Da Vinci's Clock Invention, 2008, www.da-vinci-inventions.com/cl….

“Clock.” LEONARDO DA VINCI'S INVENTIONS AND IDEAS, www.leonardo-davinci-inventions.weebly.com/clock.html.

Image Source : Leonardo da Vinci (commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fil…), "Leonardo da Vinci dial of Venus", marked as public domain, more details on Wikimedia Commons: commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Tem….

Associated Places

by Chiranth Kishore

Ever the military engineer, da Vinci generated designs for scuba gear that would allow for sneak attacks underwater during his time spent devising plans to defend the city of Venice. He believed soldiers with special equipment for diving (see picture) and with a breathing apparatus could be an effective method to sabotage enemy ships. The original concept for scuba gear was comprised of a leather suit and a mask with tubes attached to a cork floating on the surface of the water. However, this idea never really reached fruition, and is an example of one of da Vinci’s inventions that appeared too far-fetched for the people of the time to entertain. Luckily for Venice, they were able to thwart enemy forces before a need for such underwater warfare would have been necessary. The ingenuity of his scuba suit and original air bladder to aid with breathing was eventually explored by Jacques Cousteau who constructed the first aqua-lung model with Émile Gagnan that aided in the beginnings of deep sea exploration.

Sources:

“Scuba Gear.” Leonardo Da Vinci's Scuba Gear Invention, 2008, www.da-vinci-inventions.com/scuba-gear.aspx.

Campbell, Shawn. “Da Vinci's Scuba Gear.” Leonardo Da Vinci's Life, www.davincilife.com/scuba-gear.html.

Image Source : Permission granted by The British Library (www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/featur…) for use under the public domain and is attributed to the model-maker Simon Sanderson, from a design by Scott Cassell.

Associated Places

by Chiranth Kishore

While Leonardo Da Vinci did not invent the mortar, it was an extremely significant piece of weaponry. Early mortars were used to lob exploding projectiles over fortress walls or into enemy cities. One of Da Vinci's sketches depicts using mortars with fragmenting and exploding fire bombs. This type of projectile not be used until the late 1600s, many years after Da Vinci imagined them. These mortars also implement the elevation mechanism present in his cannon designs. 

A second revolutionary design by Da Vinci was the "machine gun", his vision of a superior cannon. His sketches show a specialized aiming mechanism with a fan-shaped spread of small barrels capable of firing in multiple directions at once. Another sketch consists of 33 short barreled guns in rows of 11 mounted to a cart.  Unlike traditional cannons, these smaller barrels resemble traditional guns, however they are mounted to a frame that should be lightweight and more maneuvarable than cannons. Da Vinci realized the importance of speed and agility in warfare, inspiring him to design relatively slim and nimble weapons that could be loaded and fired quickly. World History Project says this about Da Vinci's machine guns, “[Leonardo] wanted to increase the rate of firing weapons and so designed machines with multiple cannons, so they could be fired successively or all together. Many people consider these the forerunner of the modern machine gun. Two of these used racks of eleven or fourteen guns. While the top row was being fired the next rack was loaded; at the same time, a third rack was cooling off. Another design had the guns in a triangle spread for greater distribution of the projectiles."  Da Vinci was correct in his designs, as mortars and cannons would be the driving force behind invasions for centuries to come. 

Sources:

“Mortar (Weapon).” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 17 Feb. 2018, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mortar_(weapon).

Image Source:www.1000museums.com/art_works/…...

“Machine Gun.” Machine Gun by Leonardo da Vinci, www.leonardo-da-vinci.net/machine-gun/.

“Leonardo da Vinci Sketches the Design for a Machine Gun.” World History Project, worldhistoryproject.org/1500/leonardo-da-vinci-sketches-the-design-for-a-machine-gun.

Associated Places

by Steven Mazzochi

The Mona Lisa, arguably the most famous painting in the world, is an oil painting created by Leonardo Da Vinci sometime between 1503 and 1519 during the time he lived in Florence. It now hangs in the Louvre in Paris, France. Da Vinci's style was revolutionary, and set the standard for all future portraits. The painting is a masterpiece of Da Vinci's techniques, and is a unique synthesis of the subject and the landscape behind her. Her hair and clothing are given a soft look by use of fine shading, or sfumato. The background is a vast landscape that goes on seemingly endlessly, which is juxtaposed with the very close, touchable subject of the painting. Its detail shows Da Vinci’s focus on new levels of natural representation of the subject and influenced many artists to come. Leonardo Da Vinci was also known to be fascinated by the ideas of geometric perfection, and whether deliberate or not, the painting exhibits the properties of the golden ratio and the Fibonacci spiral.

Sources:

“Mona Lisa.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, inc., 18 Aug. 2017, www.britannica.com/topic/Mona-Lisa-painting.

“Leonardo da Vincis Mona Lisa.” ItalianRenaissance.org, 30 Sept. 2015, www.italianrenaissance.org/a-closer-look-leonardo-da-vincis-mona-lisa/.I... Source: Encyclopædia Britannica, www.britannica.com/topic/Mona-Lisa-painting.

Associated Places

by Laila Kassar

Da Vinci’s watermill wasn’t his only attempt to control the flow of water. One of his most ambitious projects was an attempt to construct a channel and a dam to divert the river Arno away from Pisa so that the city could no longer cut off Florentine trade. The plan was made in conjunction with another historically significant Florentine, Niccolo Machiavelli. Da Vinci for the project, designed not only the dam and channel, but also many machines intended to assist in construction. Unfortunately, as was so often the case of Leonardo, he was ahead of his time, and Florence simply did not have the resources to conduct a project on this scale. While theoretically feasible, it wasn’t economically feasible. While the project never came into fruition, the notion of controlling the flow of a river would live on past Leonardo, and would, eventually, succeed.

leonardodavinci.stanford.edu/s…...

Image from Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain

Associated Places

by Ian Campbell

The Renaissance brought about a new tradition in the field of art. Artists sought to achieve a greater sense of realism and naturalism in their paintings, as opposed to the rigid and stylized characteristics of the preceding medieval and byzantine periods. Artists were aided in achieving this goal in part through the development of oil paint, which in turn gave rise to the development of new painting techniques. The most important techniques that were established during the renaissance were sfumato, chiaroscuro, perspective, foreshortening and proportion. The advent of these techniques marked a significant shift in art history. Sfumato, a term coined by Leonardo da Vinci, refers to the subtle blending of colors and the blurring of sharp lines. Chiaroscuro is the use of strong contrast between light and dark to create depth. Perspective, foreshortening and proportion all relate to the use of mathematical principles to establish lines used to create the illusion of depth. Used in combination, these techniques greatly contributed to an artist’s ability to create three dimensional figures on a two-dimensional plane.

Sources

Gombrich, E. H. Art and Illusion: A Study in the Psychology of Pictorial Representation.

Princeton University Press, 1960.

Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. “Renaissance Art.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , 6

Mar. 2018, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance_art#Techniques.

Image Retrieved from Wikimedia Commons, fair use

Associated Places

by Lauren Krieger

Raphael’s Small Cowper Madonna is a rendition of the Virgin Mary holding the Christ Child which is located in Washington D.C. in the National Gallery of Art. This painting is an oil on panel, and it depicts Mary and Child in an Italian countryside with a church in the background on the right-hand side. Mary, represented as blonde and with fair skin, sits in the front center of the piece wearing a vibrant red dress. There appears to be an exceedingly faint, almost translucent golden halo behind her head. This halo harkens back to the Byzantine technique invoking a sort of anagogic space; however, Raphael invokes this sense of otherworldliness without the typical stiffness and two-dimensionality often found in Byzantine art. Mary holds the baby Christ in her lap, and emotion can be seen in his expression as he glances over her shoulder. This movement and emotion within the piece is another sharp deviance from the previous paradigm of Byzantine art which focused more on religious symbology than on realism of the material world.

Sources Used:

Brown, David Alan. "Raphael's 'Small Cowper Madonna' and 'Madonna of the Meadow': Their Technique and Leonardo Sources." Artibus Et Historiae 4.8 (1983): 9–26. JSTOR. Web. 28 Feb. 2018.

“Small Cowper Madonna.” Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 18 Feb. 2018. Web. 28 Feb. 2018.

Image Courtesy of Wikipedia, page titled Small Cowper Madonna. Image is Public Domain.

Associated Places

by Alicia Geoffray

A 24-foot horse sculpture was commissioned by the Duke of Milan to be built, and Da Vinci did not back out of this challenge. If built it would have been the largest sculpture of a horse in that period. To do so, Da Vinci created a miniature beeswax model to emulate the 24-foot model. He even conquered design challenges like mold making and heating a large amount of bronze for the sculpture through his notes. However, the amount of bronze required was bartered for the prevention of invasion by the French. Thus he did not practice the various design methods he conceptualized. However, the sculpture is now renown to be unlike any other work of his, especially because of the contrast of his earlier works as an apprentice. Moreover, there is an impression of a thumb on the rider’s chest that is said to be Leonardo’s.

Sources:-

“Colossus.” Leonardo da Vinci's Colossus Invention, www.da-vinci-inventions.com/colossus.aspx.

“Horse and Rider (Leonardo da Vinci).” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 7 Mar. 2018, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horse_and_Rider_(Leonardo_da_Vinci).

Image Courtesy:- Wikimedia Commons , public domain

commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fil…...

Associated Places

by Yamuna Ambalavanan

Leonardo da Vinci was known for many things; art, architecture, weapons, and anatomy. He is rarely thought of for his work in astronomy. He had a great interest in the moon and its relationship to the Earth and the sun. One of his most interesting achievements in the field of astronomy was his understanding of earthshine. After sunset on a night with a crescent moon, an ashen glow appears on the surface of the moon, the section of the moon which is in Earth’s shadow lights up faintly, and for thousands of years no one could explain how part of the moon was still slightly illuminated when there was no apparent light source acting on it. Leonardo was intrigued by the phenomenon and set out to discover the answer behind the mystery. He spent many hours  studying and observing the moon, and then he finally had a breakthrough. It was because of the Earth! He came to the conclusion that the light coming from the sun would reflect onto the oceans of the earth, and in turn create an ashen glow on the moon itself. Leonardo had previously determined that the moon had an atmosphere and bodies of water on it, this would make the moon a great reflector of light, meaning that even a small amount of light creates some kind of reflection of light off of the darkest part of the moon.

Source: "The Da Vinci Glow." NASA. 4 Oct. 2005. science.nasa.gov/science-news/…. Accessed 27 Feb. 2018.

Image source: NASA. Public Domain. science.nasa.gov/science-news/….

Associated Places

by Rachel Lee

Leonardo da Vinci originally planned to publish his anatomical notes in the form of a book. In this endeavor he had the support of Marcantonio della Torre, a professor at the University of Padua who shared da Vinci's interest in dissections and human biology. However, Marcantonio's life was cut unexpectedly short by the plague, an event that severely curtailed da Vinci's attempts to publish his notes. Coupled with political turmoil in Italy that following year, it spurred da Vinci's relocation to France, and the eventual ending of any of his attempts to bring his anatomy work to the general public.

Source:
"Marcantonio della Torre." en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcanto….

Image source: commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fil…(Turrianus)._Line_engraving,_1688._Wellcome_V0005857.jpg

Associated Places

by Shelly Tan

Anatomical Manuscript B is Leonardo da Vinci’s most comprehensive sketchbook and physical description of the human body. In 1508, he began the manuscript during a dissection of a recently deceased old man who passed in a Florence Hospital. Leonardo stated in the manuscript that, “this old man, a few hours before his death, told me… that he felt nothing wrong with his body other than weakness… and I dissected him to see the cause of so sweet a death.” He attributed the man’s death to lack of blood flow to the heart and a damaged liver. Leonardo continued the manuscript with a dissection of over 30 other cadavers; and with the help of Marcantonio della Torre at the University of Padua, completed it around 1511. Anatomical Manuscript B contains carefully sketched depictions of various organs, muscle groups, skeleton, and much more with highlights including a drawing a developed fetus and astoundingly accurate spinal cord.

Sources:

Royal Collection Trust. “The Centenarian: Anatomical Manuscript B”. Leonardo da Vinci: Anatomist: The Queen’s Gallery, Buckingham Palace. The Royal Collection Trust, 2018. Web. 15 Feb. 2018. Link

Sooke, Alastair. “Leonardo da Vinci’s groundbreaking anatomical sketches”. Art History. British Broadcasting Company, 21 Oct. 2014. Web. 15 Feb, 2018. Link

Image Source:

Image courtesy of The Medievalist.net in article "Exhibition reveals the genius of Leonardo's anatomical work". Link

Associated Places

by Thomas Knowles

Apostolici Regiminis was a papal bull declared by Pope Leo X in a doctrine concerning the nature of the human soul. An aspect of the Bull required all “natural philosophers,” scientific researchers of the time, to solely conduct work in support of church doctrine, in particular its stance on the origin of the soul.  Apostolici Regiminis refined the church’s view of the soul as “really, of itself, and essentially, the form of the body,” further explaining that each body contains a soul of its own. This restricted anatomical researchers, Leonardo da Vinci for example, to aim their dissections in search for the connection between the spiritual soul and physical body. Dissection for any other reason was blasphemy. For this reason, those curious to dissect cadavers often took residence in Rome to study under the Papacy and reduce potential accusations of sacrilege. In late 1513, Leonardo da Vinci left Milan for Rome, where we continued to study anatomy until Giovanni degli Specchi accused him of Necromancy, ending his experiments.

Sources:

Catholic Online. “Apostolici Regiminis”. Catholic Encyclopedia. Catholic Online, 2018. Web, 15 Feb. 2018. Link

Gilson, Hilary. “Leonardo da Vinci (1452 – 1519)”. The Embryo Project. Arizona State University, 26 Aug., 2008. Web. 15 Feb. 2018. Link

Image courtesy of Wikipedia, page Pope Leo X, titled Raphael's Portrait of Leo X with cardinals. Image is Public domain

Associated Places

by Thomas Knowles

Nicolaus Copernicus was born on Feb. 19, 1473 in Poland. At the age of 10, his father died, leaving him to be cared for by his uncle who oversaw his education. At the age of 18, he traveled to Italy to attend college where he intended to study the laws and regulations of the catholic church and become a canon. He instead spent a majority of his time studying mathematics and astronomy. While away at school, his uncle was elevated in his church to the position of Prince-Bishop of Warmia which gave him the opportunity to place Nicolaus in the Warmia canonry. After 7 years, he earned a doctorate in canonry and law, but remained more interested in astronomy. During his time at the University of Bologna, he lived and worked under astronomy professor Domenico Maria de Novara. When he returned home and was able to live in a tower which had an observatory that he looked through in his spare time. During many hours observing the night sky, he began to question the theory that had been proposed by Aristotle and Ptolemy 1400 years earlier. This theory was that of the Ptolemaic system, in other words, a geocentric universe. He first noticed some striking problems with the mathematics of the system, the paths of the celestial bodies were too complex and sometimes the planets would travel backwards. Astronomers call this “retrograde motion” and Ptolemy accounted for this by incorporating circles inside other circles,  known as eclipses. Unfortunately these paths were too complicated to have occured naturally, so Copernicus eventually doubted the system as a whole. He finally determined that the earth’s motion in space creates the retrograde motion of the other planets, the rotation of the earth on its own axis is what causes the rising and setting of the sun, and most importantly, the Sun is the center of the universe, not the Earth. With this conclusion he was able to simplify the paths of the planets and stars, determine the order of the planets, and create his own system, the Copernican system.

Sources: Redd, Taylor. "Nicolaus Copernicus Biography: Facts and Discoveries." Space.com. 19 Feb. 2013. www.space.com/15684-nicolaus-c…. 28 Feb. 2018.

Image source: Space.com. Public domain. www.space.com/15684-nicolaus-c….

Associated Places

by Rachel Lee

Leonardo made an autonomous mechanical lion which opened to reveal lillies and other flowers, symbolizing the bond between 2 powerful families of Florence and France, with the lion representing Florence and the flowers France. The original mechanical lion has been lost, but a replica hhas een made at the Chateau du Clos Luce and Parc. The original lion could supposedly walk, move its head, and reveal the flowers hidden inside its body. 

Image Source: dangerousminds.net/comments/le…...

Gallagher, Paul. "Leonardo Da Vinci's Incredible Mechanical Lion and History's first Programmable Computer". DangerousMinds.net, 14 September 2013. dangerousminds.net/comments/le….... Accessed 8 March 2018

All images posted on Pinterest are 

Associated Places

by Joshua Walker

De humanis Corpore is an unpublished textbook Leonardo Da Vinci was working on for a large portion of his life. The textbook was planned to have been finished in 1516 CE but Leonardo Da Vinci never finished the book. It was planned to have 120 sections with extensive amounts of illustrations. The textbook was meant to explain each of the organs and apparatus’ of anatomy, physiology, and pathology in the human body. A section of the book was also going to be dedicated to a comparative discussion of human and animal anatomy. The textbook was largely finished and it is known that Leonardo employed two collaborators to organize the drawings (268 pages of anatomical drawings) and annotations he had wrote. It is theorized that Leonardo chose not to publish and finish his textbook due to being afraid of the textbook being too controversial for this time period. This theory was proposed because in his drawing of the heart and blood circulation Leonardo wrote “I could tell more, if I was allowed to do so.”

Source:

Sterpetti, Antonio V. The Revolutionary studies by Leonardo on blood circulation were too advanced for his time to be published. Journal of Vascular Surgery 2015, vol 62 (1): 259-263. DOI:doi.org/10.1016/j.surg.2015.10…

Image Source:

Sterpetti, Antonio V. Anatomy and physiology by Leonardo: The hidden revolution?. Surgery 2016. Vol 159 (3): 675-687. DOI:doi.org/10.1016/j.surg.2015.10….

Associated Places

by Amanda Gozner

With the new and "booming" age of gunpowder, traditional fortress designs were rendered useless and indefensible. Modern cannons could easily destroy walls that were previously thought to be impenetrable. Famed Italian political scientist Machiavelli is quoted as saying, "There is no wall, whatever its thickness, that artillery will not destroy in only a few days."  However, in the mid 1500s, circa 1530, Michelangelo designed a revolutionary type of fortress that could withstand heavy fire from cannons and bombards. His design involved round or square shaped walls that came together at multiple diamond shaped points.  Surrounding the fortress were ditches and walls designed to curtail enemy troops into specific regions along the fortress where they were most vulnerable and easily killed. Glacis, or artificial slopes in the land, were also installed to prevent cannon shots at the lower regions of the wall and keep heavy artillery at bay. Unlike previous forts, the star fort eliminated "dead zones" that were sheltered from defensive fire at the rounded pillars at the corners. The star shape eliminated all dead zones by exposing the enemy to fire from all sides.  The new fort style required a much larger army to defend, but also required a much larger army to capture. The star fort design would leave Italy and become the preferred fort design for countries around the world. Thanks to its ingenious engineering, well designed geometry, and sturdy construction, the star fort would prove to be an effective defense against the ever-evolving cannons and artillery of the 1500s. 

Sources: 

Image Source: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bastion_…

Sparavigna, Amelia Carolina. “An Example of Military Engineering in 16th Century: The Star Fort of Turin.” International Journal of Sciences, vol. 1, no. 12, 2015, pp. 62–67., doi:10.18483/ijsci.880.

“Bastion fort.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 23 Feb. 2018, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bastion_fort.

International, American. “Types of Castle and The History of Castles.” Types and History of Castles - Star Forts, www.castlesandmanorhouses.com/types_10_star.htm.

Associated Places

by Steven Mazzochi

Because da Vinci failed to publish his anatomical notes to the public himself, the next time the information was seen was in influencing Andreas Vesalius's De humani corporis fabrica libri septem, a collection of books that went over human anatomy in a similar level of detail to da Vinci's notes. Like da Vinci, Vesalius personally dissected human corpses in an effort to provide the most immediate and accurate description of the human body possible; also like da Vinci, he took advantage of recent advance in printmaking technology to widely disseminate drawings more accurate than any available at the time - technology which relied heavily, in turn on some of Leonardo's advances during the Rennaissance, including his style of careful realistic sketching. Prior to Vesalius, dissections were generally done by a second person under the direction of the doctor giving the lecture; thus, this publication was unmatched in the fidelity and detail of its descriptions.

It was Vesalius's publication that finally disproved Galen's theories, making widely-known some discoveries that da Vinci had found nearly a generation prior (such as the heart's place at the center of a complete circulatory system, the lack of any anatomical evidence for Hippocratic humoral theory, and discrepancies caused by Galen's use of animal specimens).

Sources:
"De humani corporis fabrica." en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_human…. Accessed 8 Mar. 2018.

Image source: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ves…

Associated Places

by Shelly Tan

Latin for “On the fabric of the human body,” De humani corporis fabrica is a set of seven books on human anatomy published by Andreas Vesalius. Each book in the collection is separated in to specific body systems, such as “Bones and Cartilages” and “Ligaments and Muscles,” and are meant as a guide to Vesalius’ lecture series. Working in tandem with various Renaissance artists from the “studio of Titian,” Vesalius’ collection is considered the first major work of modern anatomy, replacing the old Galen dominated school of thought. The drawings are exceptionally detailed, and focus on the procedural steps in dissection. Due to the widespread use of the printing press, a condense version of De humani corporis fabrica was released to the general public and gained widespread popularity.

Source:

Bambach, Carmen. “Anatomy in the Renaissance”. Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. Metropolitan Museum of Art, Oct., 2002. Web. 15 Feb., 2018. Link

Wikipedia. "De humani corporis fabrica." Wikipedia, 15 Feb. 2018. Web. 15 Feb. 2018. Link

Image Source:

Image courtesy of Historical Anatomies of the Web page 181, retrieved online.

Associated Places

by Thomas Knowles

Cannons had been used on European ships as early as 1338 during the Hundred Years' War, however the technology was still developing and the full might of naval firepower had not yet been realized. During the middle ages, England did not keep a standing peacetime Navy, nor did many other European countries. In 1546, King Henry VIII of England established the first standing Royal Navy, along with multiple dockyards. During his reign, King Henry would build the armada to more than 40 ships, each equipped with superior firepower. The Royal Navy's warships carried 20 heavy and 60 light cannons per ship, the first being the famed flagship, the "Mary Rose." A significant advantage of the Royal Navy was their newly developed breech loading iron cannons, mixed with new cast bronze cannons. These new and incredibly powerful warships were capable of delivering tremendous damage through broadsiding, meaning all the guns on one side of the ship could be fired at once, with a maximum fire rate of 2-3 times in 5 minutes. The British also developed a variety of different projectiles to fire, including the roundshot, the canister shot, and the grapeshot, each of which dealt different levels of damage. Even powerful naval challengers such as the Spanish, who also developed a sizeable navy, would be defeated by the might of the British guns. The Royal Navy's advanced engineering and superior ships would help England become the dominant world superpower from the 16th century to the 20th century. The might of British warships was surpassed only by the United States during the second world war. 

Sources:

“Royal Navy.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 19 Feb. 2018, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Navy#Role.

“English cannon.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 18 Feb. 2018, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_cannon.

“Royal Navy History.” History | Royal Navy, www.royalnavy.mod.uk/news-and-latest-activity/features/history-timeline.

“Naval artillery.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 17 Feb. 2018, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naval_artillery#Origins.

Image Source: John Cleveley the Elder [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons

Associated Places

by Steven Mazzochi

Andrea Palladio's I quattro libri dell'architettura was published in 1570 and has since been translated into several Western languages. Known in English as Four Books on Architecture, the work summarized Palladio's studies of classical Roman architecture.  The books contained nine sets of architectural rules as well as many of Palladio's designs which he synthesized from his study of Roman ruins, works of previous writers such as Vitruvius, and discussions with other Renaissance architects.  Some of his designs featured in the treatises were actually constructed while others were merely theorized. His work sparked the architectural movement of Palladian architecture that is based on symmetry, perspective, and other mathematical principles.

Sources:

Center for Palladian Studies in America. “Palladio and His Books.” Center for Palladian Studies in America, www.palladiancenter.org/palladiobooks.html.

Heyman, Jacques. “Palladio's Wooden Bridges.” Architectural Research Quarterly, vol. 4, no. 1, 2000, pp. 81–86.

Image Source:

By Anonymous (Unknown) [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons

Associated Places

by Emily Maneke

While Da Vinci was a masterful artisan, he was also often employed as a military engineer. The revolving bridge was developed for quickly and moving troops across bodies of water that they might encounter in their path. This self-supporting bridge was light enough to be carried in pieces by soldiers and could be constructed without the need for any nails. The structure of the bridge was made of a rope and pulley system to allow it to rotate around a pylon on the shore to reach out across a river. While this invention didn't directly increase the military prowess of the armies that used it, it allowed troops to get from one place to another far faster than having to always go around large bodies of water.

Source: “What Is Leonardo's Revolving Bridge Invention?” Innovateus.net, www.innovateus.net/innopedia/what-leonardos-revolving-bridge-invention.

“Leonardo Da Vinci's Self Supporting Bridge.” Go Back to the Front Page, www.leonardodavincisinventions.com/leonardo-da-vinci-models/leonardo-da-....

Mahmoud, K.M. “Recent Developments In Bridge Engineering.” Google Books, books.google.com/books?id=7t3rGrDxA3oC&pg=PA85&lpg=PA85&dq=leonardo%2Bda%2Bvinci%2Bmovable%2Bbridge&source=bl&ots=rYjhsSuc1W&sig=xAYmz6N1i1X3ntSKlmTG9Y5Zqw8&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjl_8irm8zZAhUJ7awKHQ5ABT44ChDoAQg0MAI#v=onepage&q=leonardo%20da%20vinci%20movable%20bridge&f=false.

Image: Getty Images, www.gettyimages.com/detail/new…...

Associated Places

by Scott Lenz

The most common calendar in the world, the Gregorian Calendar, was introduced in 1582 in Catholic Europe by Pope Gregory XIII to replace the Julian calendar, which did not align exactly with the solar year and caused holidays to not fall in alignment with astronomical events or seasons. The calendar consists of 365 days broken up into 12 months of 28, 30, or 31 days, excepting leap years in which an extra day is added to make 366. The main goal of this calendar was to realign religious holidays with equinoxes and solstices. To accomplish this, the system of leap years was changed from every four years to slightly less than that, with the leap year being omitted every turn of a century, unless the year is divisible by 400. Additionally, the calendar has a more accurate way of calculating the date of Easter each year. In order to transition to the new system and line it up with the Earth, 10 days in October 1582 were not observed. Protestant countries were worried the new system was a scheme of the Catholic church to silence them, and so abstained from the change until 200 years later in 1752, when they joined the Catholic countries on the new calendar. Although the Pope enforced the new calendar, it was actually designed by Luigi Lilio, an Italian doctor, astronomer and philosopher. This calendar is accurate to one day every 3236 years, one of the best attempts humanity has made at a perfectly accurate calendar.

Source: “The Gregorian Calendar.” 2018. www.timeanddate.com/calendar/g…. Accessed 7 Mar 2018.

Image: Wikipedia Commons, public domain. commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Gre…

Associated Places

by Derek Jones

Implemented by the University of Padua, the first anatomical theatre was built as both a teaching tool and a gathering place to discuss medical science. The design, based on a traditional amphitheater, included a center table for cadaver work surrounded by elevated rows of seats and railings for observers to gain a clear view of the dissection. Typically, skeletons from previous dissections were including in a viewing, along with instructional banners. A chief surgeon leading the meeting normally didn’t perform the actualcutting, as hired dissectors or students would follow his instructions during the viewing. Due to the large seating capacity, viewing of dissections became popular, spurring the construction of similar theatres accross Northern Italy and making the region the center of anatomical research decades. Over the course of the next few centuries, anatomical theatres following a similar design were built across Europe.

Source:

Klestinec, Cynthia. “A History of Anatomy Theatres in Sixteenth-Century Padua.” Journal of History of Medicine and Allied Sciences. US National Library of Medicine, July, 2004. Web. 15 Feb. 2018. Link

Image Source:

Image is courtesy of VenetoInside.com. Image can be found on the website 

Associated Places

by Thomas Knowles

With the introduction of Polyphonic music in Venice, the 16^th century sought to better the acoustics of the church through modifications in the architecture of various churches in Venice. With special regard to Basilica of San Marco, there was the seating for the doge of Venice. During the introduction of polyphonic music, the acoustics was said to be terrible however through the introduction of modifications built by architect Jacopo Sansovino in the 16th century by decreasing the reverberation time, increased the quality of sound to modern concert seating for the doge of Venice. These modifications are remarkable to witness especially because the introduction of polyphonic music was still quite new and the nonexistence of current technology.

Sources:-

Boren, Braxton B., and Malcolm S. Longair. “Acoustic simulation of renaissance Venetian churches.” The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, vol. 130, no. 4, 2011, pp. 2318–2318., :10.1121/1.3654261.

Kim Krieger. “Venetian Acoustics Rediscovered.” Science | AAAS, 11 Nov. 2011, www.sciencemag.org/news/2011/11/venetian-acoustics-rediscovered.

Image Courtesy:-  Wikimedia Commons , public domain

commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fil…

Associated Places

by Yamuna Ambalavanan

The artistic principles established in Renaissance art helped to guide artists for centuries after. The renaissance introduced the idea of secular subject matter, a focus on naturalism, and the representation of emotion in subjects. The baroque period that directly followed the Renaissance used these principles and pushed them even further. These artists focused on using vibrant colors and extreme lights and darks to create dramatic and dynamic works of art. The baroque artists rejected the tranquil expressions found in renaissance art and instead chose to imbue as much emotion in their subjects as possible. In this way the movement, emotion, and extravagance that characterizes baroque art sets it apart from the comparatively simple Renaissance art. The Elevation of the Cross by Peter Paul Rubens is an excellent example of how Baroque art differs from Renaissance art. Every panel of this triptych is packed with action, with the diagonal composition ultimately drawing the viewers eye to the drama of Christ on the cross being hoisted up. This piece evokes a visceral reaction in the viewer by taking the emotional principles established in the Renaissance and pushing them to the extreme.

Sources

Camara, Esperanca. “Baroque Art in Europe, an Introduction.” Khan Academy, 2018,

www.khanacademy.org/humanities/monarchy-enlightenment/baroque-art1/beginners-gui

de-baroque1/a/baroque-art-in-europe-an-introduction.

Stokstad, Marilyn, and Michael W. Cothren. Art History. Upper Saddle River, NJ:

Pearson/Prentice Hall, 2011. Print.

Image Retrieved from Wikimedia Commons, fair use

Associated Places

by Lauren Krieger

New Atlantis is an incomplete utopian novel written by Sir Francis Bacon, a late renaissance writer, scholar, and statesman. It was published in 1627. The book is based upon the allegorical Atlantis in Plato's works Timaeus and Critias. New Atlantis is one of many books inspired by Plato's Atlantis story, including Utopia by Thomas More, who coined the word utopia. New Atlantis is representative of the ideas of utopia that were under discussion throughout Europe during the Renaissance. This discussion was fueled by the revival of Ancient Greek and Roman traditions of desiring to create the perfect society. 

Sources:

“New Atlantis.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 28 Feb. 2018, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Atlantis.

"The Utopian Impulse." Sterling Memorial Library, Yale University, 8 June. 2009, www.library.yale.edu/exhibitio….

Image Source: Classic Literature, classic-literature.co.uk/franc…...

Associated Places

by Laila Kassar

After Copernicus had concluded that the sun was the center of the universe and that all other planets had an orbit around the sun, there was immense controversy. Many people had a hard time accepting the new Copernican system because it rejected the notions of the Ptolemaic system and even clashed with the conventions of the bible. The bible declines the idea of a stationary sun and a moving earth, and many Catholics and Protestants quickly rejected the idea. People such as Martin Luther openly dismissed the notion in one of his “table talks” in 1593. In light of this conflict Tycho Brahe created a new, hybrid model, a geostatic heliocentric model. In this system, the moon and the sun have an orbit around the earth and the other planets have an orbit around the sun. This accounted for Copernicus’ correct prediction of the movement of the planets but worked with the solidity of a stationary earth so that Aristotelian physics could be maintained. Many people adopted the new Tychonic cosmology, but Galileo Galilei changed all that. After Galileo’s invention of the telescope, the Tychonic system validity was questioned. He boldly questioned the new system and even called into question the bible’s knowledge on astronomy when he stated that the bible is written in the language of the common person, not in the language of an expert in astronomy. Galileo’s statements and arguments undermined the physics and astronomy of Aristotle and those before him. Galileo’s telescopic observations did not prove, nor disprove that the sun is the center of the universe, but it did add to his validity and urged people to consider the points he was sharing. Soon after, the heliocentric system was widely accepted.

Sources: "The Galileo Project." Rice University. galileo.rice.edu/sci/theories/…. Accessed 28 Feb. 2018.

Image source: Rice University. Public domain. galileo.rice.edu/sci/theories/….

Associated Places

by Rachel Lee

The first pendulum clock was invented in 1656 by a Dutch scientist named Christian Huygens. He allegedly spent all of Christmas day in the Hague constructing his model. Although Galileo Galilei is often credited with studying and inventing the pendulum in the late 16th century, his clock designs were never built. Although the pendulum clock was invented in the Netherlands, it became most prevalent among English clockmakers. By 1671 the “grandfather clock” design we know today was becoming widespread in England and later the rest of Europe. Around this time, a man named William Clement created a new mechanism, the anchor escapement, as well as the pendulum suspension spring. These further increased the accuracy of pendulum clocks. At this point, pendulum clocks could be accurate to less than 10 seconds a day, which was orders of magnitude more accurate than previous clock designs. Because of this newfound accuracy, London clockmaker Daniel Quare added minute and second hands to the clock, allowing time to be read more accurately than ever before. This type of clock dominated timekeeping for centuries, until the electric clock became prevalent in the 19th century.

Sources: “Accurate Mechanical Clocks.” The History of Mechanical Pendulum Clocks and Quartz Clocks. 7 April 2017. www.thoughtco.com/history-of-m…. Accessed 8 Mar 2018.

Gascoigne, Bamber. “History of Clocks.”  HistoryWorld. From 2001, ongoing. www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/P…. Accessed 8 Mar 2018.

Image: Wikipedia Commons, public domain. commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fil…...

Associated Places

by Derek Jones

A welsh inventor, Philip Vaughan, was the first person to patent ball bearings in 1794, almost 300 years after da Vinci’s notebooks discussed practically identical designs. Vaughan’s design was specifically purposed for reducing friction between the axle and wheel of a carriage. It was then another 100 years before Henry Timken patented tapered roller bearings and founded Timken Roller Bearing Company, which remains the elite standard for bearing manufacturing today.

It is unfortunate that the culture in which da Vinci was inventing did not enable inventors to stake claim on their work as patents do today. Present-day industry recognizes inventors such as Vaughan and Timken as the fathers of bearings, when in fact it was Leonardo da Vinci who hundreds of years earlier documented his observations and improved upon the rudimentary designs of the ancient world. Much of the fame given to Vaughan and Timken comes from their ability to build on da Vinci’s works and implement immediately usable mechanical solutions in the height of the industrial revolution. Da Vinci’s designs while innovative, were not fully realizable given the technologies available to him in the late 15^th century. However, his proposed uses such as his flying machine was only able to be envision with knowledge of bearing use and design.

Even today, 500+ years after da Vinci’s work, tribology (the study of friction, wear, lubrication and bearing design) remains a billion dollar industry where many scientists and engineers work to continue to make improvements to bearing design. The persistence of the importance of bearings in machine design speaks to the genius of da Vinci to have theorized and exampled such work much earlier in history.

Sources:  “Timken Company.” Wikipedia, 23 Feb. 2018. Wikipedia, en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?t….

Associated Places

by Katelyn Polson

The true realization of Leonardo’s dreams for water power, would not come about on a grand scale until the industrial revolution. By then, the practical, secular, scientific worldview of the renaissance had permeated deep into society, the commerce and trade of the Italian states had turned into true capitalism. Watermills then, began to be used to power the booming textile industry. While mills had been used for more than simply grinding grain before, it had never been done on this scale. In 1814, Francis Lowell constructed a textile factory to be powered by the Charles river in Massachusetts. This was one of the first truly industrial factories to be built in the US and water was the driving force for the industry. Later in the 1840s, Lowell constructed a series of dams and channels to strengthen the flow of the river, providing yet more power to the mills. The sort of projects that Leonardo had laid the theoretical groundwork for, at the River Arno were now being put into action.  

ocp.hul.harvard.edu/ww/mills.h…

Picture by Sidney and Neff retrieved from Wikimedia Commons, public domain

Associated Places

by Ian Campbell

Currently on its fifth rendition, the first Galata Bridge on the mouth of the Golden Horn was constructed in 1845. Also known as Cisr-i Cedid (New Bridge) to distinguish it from a 19th century bridge built atop pontoons farther upstream, the bridge was made of wood and supported by several piers that extended into the river. In addition to traversing the Golden Horn, the bridge served as a symbolic link between the two cultures of traditional, secular Istanbul and foreign, non-Muslim Galata.

Sources:

“Kara-Keui (Galata) Bridge, Constantinople, Turkey.” World Digital Library, Library of Congress, 8 Jan. 2018, www.wdl.org/en/item/8820/.

New Galata Bridge Artisans Institution. “History of Bridge.” Galata Porusu Restoranlar, New Galata Bridge Artisans Institution, www.galatakoprusu.org.tr/en/history-of-bridge/.

Image Source:                                                                                                  

PD ("No known restrictions on publication."), via Wikimedia Commons

Associated Places

by Emily Maneke

The advent of electricity largely brought to an end the era of water turbines powering textile mills by means of belts. Electricity enabled large factories to operate even in areas away from water. But this was by no means the end of water power. Instead water turbines where hooked up to generators rather than belts, and would become a major source of electricity in some regions. 1878 the first hydroelectric generator was produced, only powerful enough to light a single lamp. But in the following decades hydroelectric plants emerged with ever greater frequency, including over the Niagara Falls in 1895. In this way the tradition of water powering industry lived on. 

International Hydropower Association www.hydropower.org/a-brief-his…

Image by Don-vip Retrieved from Wikimedia Commons. Fair use

Associated Places

by Ian Campbell

After its discovery in 1867 by chemist August Wilhem von Hofman, formaldehyde was isolated for industrial use in 1892 by German chemist Friedrich August Kekule’ von Stradonitz. Immediately after its isolation, chemists unteased its potential as a preservative. Formaldehyde, as well as other modern embalming fluids, works by denaturing proteins throughout the body to prevent bacterial degradation of the tissue. It also acts as an antibiotic making the compound an excellent tool for prolonged dissection. By 1898, over 45 medical schools were implementing formaldehyde into the anatomical studies. The compound laid the foundation for modern dissection, and currently is used in a cocktail of various embalming fluids to enhance body preservation.

Sources:

Brenner, Erich. “Human body preservation – old and new techniques”. Journal of Anatomy. US National Library of Medicine, Jan. 2014. Web. 15 Feb. 2018. Link

Image Source:

Image courtesy of Cornell Biochemistry, retrieved online 

Associated Places

by Thomas Knowles

Many of the designs that Leonardo da Vinci outlined in his plan for an “ideal city” were implemented by Daniel Burnham when he created his master plan for the city of Chicago in 1909. He was similarly focused on the movement of people within the city, and he planned out a systematic arrangement of streets to decrease congestion. The final city plan, although not included in Burnham’s drawings, also incorporated Da Vinci’s idea for a two-tier roadway system. Burnham also focused on incorporation green spaces and preserving the lakefront from industrialization in his plan. He felt that the citizens of Chicago should all own the lakefront together, rather than it being controlled by businesses. Unlike Da Vinci, Burnham had a fairly clean slate to work with for his design, due to the Great Chicago Fire of 1871, and many aspects of his plan were incorporated into Chicago.

Sources:

“Burnham Plan of Chicago.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 28 Feb. 2018, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burnham_Plan_of_Chicago.

“The Plan of Chicago.” The Plan of Chicago: Daniel Burnham and the Remaking of the American City by Carl Smith, an Excerpt, press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/764726.html.

Image Source: Wikimedia Commons:

upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia…

Associated Places

by Scott Lenz

Kenneth Snelson was a sculptor and photographer who used the forces of compression and tension to create works of art. Known as the Father of Tensegrity, Snelson defines tensegrity as “solid elements set in space and supporting each other through tension”. However, he prefers to refer to his work as “floating compression” or “endoskeletal prestressed structures”. Similar to da Vinci’s self supporting bridge, Snelson’s artworks rely on the balanced forces of tension and compression to remain standing. Snelson’s works have been shown around the world in the United States, Japan, Germany, and France. He has won several awards including the City of Osaka Civic Environment Award in Osaka, Japan, and the Lifetime Achievement Award from the International Sculpture Center in the United States.

Sources:

Snelson, Kenneth. “Biography.” Kenneth Snelson, kennethsnelson.net/biography/.

“Snelson, Kenneth.” Tensegrity - Snelson, Kenneth, Wikispaces, tensegritywiki.com/Snelson, Kenneth.

Image Source:

By Onderwijsgek (Own work) [CC BY-SA 2.5 nl (creativecommons.org/licenses/b…)], via Wikimedia Commons

Associated Places

by Emily Maneke

One of the most unique and unusual instruments in the history of music, the theremin is played using proximity sensors distributed in two perpendicular antennae. The distance between the performer’s hands from the first antenna determines pitch, and the second determines volume. Although it is not the first electrical instrument ever created, it underscores the beginning of the musical shift from acoustic to electronic, and perhaps even society’s growing development in and dependence on technology.

Source:

-      

“Theremin.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 1 Mar. 2018, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theremin.

Image Source: What’s On the Air Company, via Wikimedia Commons.

Associated Places

by Jennifer Liu

One of the most unique and unusual instruments in the history of music, the theremin is played using proximity sensors distributed in two perpendicular antennae. The distance between the performer’s hands from the first antenna determines pitch, and the second determines volume. Although it is not the first electrical instrument ever created, it underscores the beginning of the musical shift from acoustic to electronic, and perhaps even society’s growing development in and dependence on technology.

Source:

-      

“Theremin.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 1 Mar. 2018, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theremin.

Image Source: What’s On the Air Company, via Wikimedia Commons.

Associated Places

by Jennifer Liu

The Grand Coulee Dam is one of the largest hydroelectric dams in the world, and one of the most productive. Construction started in 1933, in the middle of the Great Depression. It was funded by the Public Works administration, in an effort to provide jobs and eventually power to the pacific northwest. Work was finished in 1942 and the power it provided was instrumental in supporting northwestern industries during WWII. The dam currently produces 6,809 MW, more than three times the power generated by the better known Hoover Dam. In converting the natual downward flow of water into pure power, this dam fulfills the dreams and ideas expressed in so many of Leonardo’s water related drawings.

The dam is celebrated in the Woody Guthrie song “Grand Coulee Dam” with lyrics such as  

"Roll along Columbia. You can ramble to the sea
But river while you're ramblin' you can do some work for me"

A turn of phrase that, while colloquial, seems to express well Da Vinci’s view on the power of water.

Info and Image from National Park Service: www.nps.gov/articles/washingto… Public Domain

Associated Places

by Ian Campbell

Grey Walter built two electro-mechanical "tortise" robots, ELSIE and ELMER, each with an analog computer simulating a neural network for decision making. These early analog nervous systems were very simple, consisting of a touch or a light sensor, 2 "neurons", and 2 motors. These robots were nonetheless able to show a few lifelike behaviors- the ability to move to is goal, the ability to choose between various attractors, and the ability to explore its environment, though it could not record anything in memory. When combined with an electrical learning circuit, the robot gained the ability to be conditioned, such that an irrelevent stimulus repeatedly followed by a stimulus the robot typically would react to would eventually also cause the same reaction. 

Image and Information Retrieved from rutherfordjournal.org/article0…

Boden, Margaret. "Grey Walter's Anticipatory Tortises" The Rutherford Journal. Retrieved 8 March 2018

Associated Places

by Joshua Walker

Shakey the Robot was an autonomous mobile robot built by the Stanford Research institude capable of recieving complex commands and plan out a strategy to complete its task without explicit instruction for each step. The robot was a testbed for a variety of new algorithms, including vision processing, route planning, and real-world object manipulation. 

Image and Information source: www.ai.sri.com/shakey/

No Author. "Shakey". ARI International's Artificial Intelligence Center. Accessed 08 March 2018

Associated Places

by Joshua Walker

Utilizing dyes and radiographic markers to track blood flow, Brian Bellhouse conducted a famous experiment proving correct an old rejected theory about the heart by Leonardo da Vinci. Because Da Vinci never formally published his anatomical research, scholars disregarded much of his physiological deductions for centuries. One such neglected idea was his model for blood flow in the aortic arch. By applying knowledge on fluid dynamics, Da Vinci concluded that mechanism to prevent backflow into the heart was driven by flow eddies created by blood pumped into the arch following a sinus ridge. These flow eddies then create circular vortexes that would press against aortic valves, in particular the sinuses of Valsalva, from the sides to close them at even the slightest amount of systolic backflow. Until Bellhouse’s experiment, scientists believed the mechanism involved direct pressure from above the valve, which Da Vinci believed wouldn’t work as such forces would crumple the sinuses.

Sources:

Boon, B. “Leonardo da Vinci on atherosclerosis and the function of the sinuses of Valsalva”. Netherlands Heart Journal. US National Library of Medicine, Dec. 2009. Web, 15 Feb., 2018. Link

Image Source:

Toninato, Riccardo; & Salmon, Jacob; & Susin, Francesca; & Ducci, Andrea; Burriesci, Gaetano. “Physiological vortices in the sinuses of Valsalva: An In Vitro approach for bio-prosthetic valves.” Journal of Biomechanics. Science Direct, 6 Sep. 2016. Link

Associated Places

by Thomas Knowles

Poundbury was an attempt by Charles, Prince of Wales to build an ideal, high-density urban environment that was designed to reduce car dependency and encourage walking, cycling, and public transportation. Parking for cars is mainly located behind homes to allow for spacious streetscapes that are free from clutter. Homes are built close to eachother to foster community. The ideas for Poundbury's design are founded on sustainability. One element that achieves this is the anaerobic digester on the edge of town, which can break down biodegradable material and transform the resulting biogas into electricity and heat. Plans for Poundbury's creation were revealed in 1987. While originally scheduled for completion in 2015, it is still under construction. Currently, the population is around 3,000. The design of the town appeals to many looking for a peaceful place to live, however some critics have called it a "cottagey slum", as well as a folksy pastiche with a hint of Arts and Crafts. Despite this, it has been an economic success, estimated to contribute a further €500 million to the local economy by 2025. Overall, Poundbury’s planning is a radically innovative change to the planning assumptions of the 20th century.

Sources: 

Norwood, Graham. “Poundbury: A look at Prince Charles' sustainable village in Dorset.” The Telegraph, Telegraph Media Group, 26 Apr. 2017, www.telegraph.co.uk/property/b…....

“Poundbury .” Duchy of Cornwall, duchyofcornwall.org/poundbury.html.

“Poundbury.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 8 Mar. 2018, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poundbury.

Image Source: www.johnsimpsonarchitects.com/…

Associated Places

by Laila Kassar

Two submersible bridges were constructed at either end of the Corinth Canal in Greece. To let ships pass through the canal, the bridges' decks are lowered 26 feet below the water level. This allows for ships of any height to pass through the canal, as there is no bridge structure above the canal to interfere with ships' masts, sails, or other parts of the ships. However, since the canal was constructed in the late 1800s, the canal is too narrow for some modern ships to pass through. Even with this constraint, approximately 11,000 ships go through the canal each year.

Sources:

Allen, David H. How Mechanics Shaped the Modern World. 2014.

Kaushik. “Submersible Bridges at Corinth Canal, Greece.” Amusing Planet, 16 Sept. 2013, www.amusingplanet.com/2013/09/submersible-bridges-at-corinth-canal.html.

Image Source:

By Original: Aspiasia Coumiotis Derivative work: Spilla at English Wikipedia (File:BridgeSubmerging.jpg) [CC BY-SA 2.5 (creativecommons.org/licenses/b…)], via Wikimedia Commons

Associated Places

by Emily Maneke

Rosheim, a modern robotisist, build a replica of Leonardo's moving knight. Rosheim's knight attempts to vastly improve on the original design of Leonardo's with modern technology while still having human-like motion. It is powered by linear actuators acting as muscles and has human-like joints, as opposed to the joints typically found in industrial machinery. This replica was sent to the Jihnson Space Center's Dextrous Robotics Laboratory. Because the robot was human-like, it was designed to do dangerous manual tasks that would have otherwise required the full dexterity of an able-bodied person. 

Image Source: www.gettyimages.com/detail/new…...

Credit: William West/AFP/Getty Images

Information Source: ic.galegroup.com.ezproxy.lib.p…...

Fisher, Arthur. "Leonardo's lost robot." Popular Science, Sept. 1997, p. 85+. Biography in Context, link.galegroup.com.ezproxy.lib….... Accessed 8 Mar. 2018.

Associated Places

by Joshua Walker

Between 1997 and 2001, Norwegian painter and artist Vebjørn Sand formed a partnership with the Norwegian Public Roads Administration to build what became known as the Vebjørn Sand da Vinci Bridge. Based on Leonardo da Vinci's arched bridge design originally intended for the Golden Horn of present day Istanbul, Sand's pedestrian bridge was built over European route E18 in Ås, Norway. The Vebjørn Sand da Vinci Bridge is smaller version of da Vinci's parabolic arch design which used a wider base to more effectively distribute force, a principle which da Vinci discovered centuries before its common use.

This bridge also launched the Oslo Leonardo Bridge Project. The project aims to build da Vinci footbridges all around the world using local resources, and Sand hopes to use the bridge as "a logo for all nations" according to the Wall Street Journal.

Sources:

Morris, Jan. “Spanning Past and Present.” The Wall Street Journal, Dow Jones & Company, 5 Nov. 2005, www.wsj.com/articles/SB113113585415688626.

Nash, Eric P. “After 500 Years, Leonardo Gets His Bridge.” New York Times, vol. 151, no. 51962, 2001, p. 3.

Wikimedia Foundation. “Vebjørn Sand Da Vinci Project.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 31 Jan. 2018, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vebj%C3%B8rn_Sand_Da_Vinci_Project.

This image by Åsmund Ødegård (Flickr) is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.0 Generic license (creativecommons.org/licenses/b…), via Wikimedia Commons. commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fil…

Associated Places

by Emily Maneke

Viola Organista is one of the most complex instruments that Leonardo Da Vinci invented. The main purpose of the viola organista was to combine a violin and an organ to extend the retention of a sound of a particular note. This piano was recreated by Slawomir Zubrzycki, who is a pianist, from Krakow, Poland. The instrument took 4 years to recreate and was mainly derived from the Leonardo Da Vinci’s drawings from his notebook and Michael Praetorius’s description of the instrument when it was first created. It is now played in various recitals throughout Europe by Slawomir Zubrzycki.

Source:-   

“Viola organista.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 3 Mar. 2018, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viola_organista.

“Reconstruction.” Viola Organista, www.violaorganista.com/en/about/reconstruction/.

Isaacson, Walter. Leonardo Da Vinci. Simon And Schuster,2017

Image Courtesy: www.npr.org/sections/deceptive…... Tomasz Wiech/AFP/Getty Images

Associated Places

by Yamuna Ambalavanan

Obviously, we have since come a long way since da Vinci's first dissection of a human corpse. The wealth of techniques we have available to us is rapidly increasing, as scientists develop new ways to probe the human form in an increasingly non-invasive manner. However, one of the most important tools in modern medicine is arguably the MRI machine, short for Magnetic Resonance Imaging. Relying on signals sent back by vibrating nuclei aligned by a massive magnet, an MRI is capable of producing a series of hundreds of images as though the patient's body had been "sliced" on countless paper-thin planes. Non-invasive and almost completely harmless, MRIs have become indispensable in the diagnosis of disease.

With such a technique, da Vinci's work has come under similar question to that of his predecessors. We are able to see structures in a living human patient that would not have been present in a cadaver multiple days old, such as the delicate tubes of the digestive tract and membranes like the omentum. However, as our advances continue, most of his observations continue to hold true - a testament to the care with which he made his initial drawings.

Sources:
"Leonardo da Vinci: anatomist." Jones, Roger. Br J Gen Pract 2012; 62 (599): 319. DOI: 10.3399/bjgp12X649241
"Magnetic Resonance Imaging. " en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic…. Accessed 8 Mar. 2018.

Image source: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:T1t…

Associated Places

by Shelly Tan

The robonaut continues the work Mark Rosheim started, with the goal of aiding humans in simple or repetitive physical tasks in space. The robot has been on board the ISS since its launch in 2011, and is used as a testing platform for further humainoid robotics in a low-gravity environment. 

Image and Information Source: robonaut.jsc.nasa.gov/R2/#pane…

No Author. "Robonaut 2 Technology Suite Offers Opportunities in Vast Range of Industries" Robonaut 2 .  Accessed 8 March 2018

Associated Places

by Joshua Walker

The robonaut continues the work Mark Rosheim started, with the goal of aiding humans in simple or repetitive physical tasks in space. The robot has been on board the ISS since its launch in 2011, and is used as a testing platform for further humainoid robotics in a low-gravity environment. 

Image and Information Source: robonaut.jsc.nasa.gov/R2/#pane…

No Author. "Robonaut 2 Technology Suite Offers Opportunities in Vast Range of Industries" Robonaut 2 .  Accessed 8 March 2018

Associated Places

by Joshua Walker

While ball and roller bearings have been and remain one of the most important machine components, many are now looking for the next innovation. Similarly to what was seen in the Middle Ages there have been minimal industry-changes improvements to bearing technology since the 19^th century. As our society is in the midst of a new paradigm shift, bearing technology is one area in which great change is expected. This is likely to come in the form of Superconducting Levitation.

While rolling element bearings provided a huge decrease in friction between sliding surfaces, they do not fully eliminate the friction and wear. As machines continue to need to operate at faster speeds and for longer durations, bearings become one of the limiting elements. A better solution comes from being able to support a surface without any physical contact, which is what levitation offers.

Superconducting levitation makes use of electromagnetic fields and flux pinning/trapping to simultaneously attract and repel two magnets. The superconductor is cooled to very low temperatures to enhance its magnetic properties. The ferrous (magnetic) material that will be levitated is then brought into close proximity to the superconductor without contacting it. The magnetic flux “lines” between the two materials then become “pinned” and thus hold the ferrous material at an equilibrium distance, achieving support without a physical contact. This allows the supported material to accelerate quickly and travel almost infinitely (neglecting air resistance) from a single applied force.

The main limitation in superconducting levitation is the need to supercool the conductor. Advances in material science are enabling scientists and inventors to synthesize new materials that can display superconducting properties at closer to room temperature.

The video link attached shows and explains in greater detail how superconduction and superconducting levitation works.

youtu.be/Z4XEQVnIFmQ?t=47s

Source: 

Image: www.eng.ed.ac.uk/research/them…

Associated Places

by Katelyn Polson

The Lucky Knot Bridge is a pedestrian bridge spanning a highway and a river in Changsha, China. Designed by NEXT Architects, the Lucky Knot Bridge design won the international competition to design a bridge for a New Lake District park in 2013. NEXT Architects' design was inspired by the art of Chinese knotting and the Mobius ring. In ancient Chinese art, the knot symbolizes prosperity and good luck. Meanwhile, the Mobius ring is a surface with only one side and only one edge. The combination of these two arts formed the 600 foot long and 78 foot tall bridge that appears to cross over the highway and river in three distinct paths. However, like the Mobius ring that inspired it, the bridge is actually only one surface in a continuous loop that has no set beginning or end. Painted bright red as a symbol of good fortune, the bridge has eight street entrances and five connection points between the three interwoven crossings.

Sources:

Garfield, Leanna. “China's topsy-Turvy bridge actually has three bridges woven into one.” Business Insider, Business Insider, 11 Oct. 2017, www.businessinsider.com/china-lucky-knot-bridge-photos-next-architects-2....

Next Architects. “Lucky Knot.” NEXT Architects - Next Projects - Bridges - Lucky Knot, www.nextarchitects.com/en/projects/lucky_knot?c=bridges.

Image Source: By David Benbennick (Own work) [GFDL (www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html), CC-BY-SA-3.0 (creativecommons.org/licenses/b…) or CC BY-SA 2.0 (creativecommons.org/licenses/b…)], via Wikimedia Commons

For pictures of the Lucky Knot Bridge, please reference www.nextarchitects.com/en/proj….

Associated Places

by Emily Maneke