New Woman Movement

Frances Benjamin Johnston's Self-Portrait (as "New Woman"), 1896.

The New Woman social movement began in the United Kingdom in the late nineteenth century. This movement was created to represent the emergence of “radical women” in society. These “New Women” were known as feminist, educated, and career driven. They fought for women’s rights to dress as they want as well as do activities that were not traditionally feminine such as riding bikes or joining male dominated work forces. Before this movement came about, the widely held belief was that women were to be completely dependent on the men in their lives whether that was financially or legally. Women were expected to submit to both their husbands and fathers as opposed to developing their own opinions or jobs. People who were opposed to the idea of the “New Woman” claimed that the movement was a threat to motherhood as well as the status quo of patriarchal society. They said that the movement encouraged hatred of children and marriage because women would no longer be dependent on men. Despite all its opposition, the sexual and economic freedoms encouraged by the “New Woman” movement were too liberating to be forgotten and soon led to social change throughout the United Kingdom.

I have been reading that book The Time Machine and I dare say that it represents the world we would live in if society embraced these “New Woman” communists. Women are meant to serve their husbands. If that system is upset, who knows what society will look like! Every day it gets harder and harder to distinguish the difference between men and women walking along the streets. The women are wearing pants and riding bicycles! It would be so simple for them if they just embraced tradition and agreed to stay in the home. It is an easy life they lead, and I do not understand why they would want to change that. If these women succeed in their fight to abolish gender norms, family as we know it would cease to exist. We would become creatures like the Eloi, soft and never exposed to the hardships of everyday life. Society would truly become stagnant and frail. The human race may be eliminated entirely because the women would no longer wish to reproduce. My wife would be perceived no differently than the common whore! H. G. Wells does a wonderful job of exemplifying the effects of this communist lifestyle and how devastating it would be to our world.

“New Woman.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 8 Oct. 2020, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Woman.

Buzwell, Greg. “Daughters of Decadence: the New Woman in the Victorian Fin De Siècle.” The British Library, The British Library, 17 Apr. 2014, www.bl.uk/romantics-and-victorians/articles/daughters-of-decadence-the-n....

Jack the Ripper's Murders

The Picture of Dorian Gray is a novel set during the Victorian Era, more specifically towards the end of it (1886). Well, two years following this, a mysterious murderer, “Jack the Ripper,” killed at least five women. All of the women were prostitutes and were murdered in or near the Whitechapel District of London’s East End. This case is said to be “one of the most famous unsolved mysteries of English crime” (Jenkins). The first murder happened on August 31st, 1888 (Mary Ann Nichols) with the last murder happening on November 9th (Mary Jane Kelly). The other three prostitutes were Annie Chapman (September 8th), Elizabeth Stride (September 30th), and Catherine Eddows (September 30th). There are more murders occurring all the way until 1892 that can be potentially linked to Jack the Ripper. However, it has yet to be actually proven. Jack the Ripper killed these women with a specific trademark: slicing open their throat and mutilating their bodies. Due to this, it is thought that Jack the Ripper has “at least some knowledge on human anatomy” (Jenkins). Jack the Ripper has also been said to have sent the police half of a human kidney from one of his victim’s bodies and has even sent them letters claiming that he is the murderer. He was never arrested, and it caused a huge uproar within society, as murders were very rare back then in that time period. 

It’s ridiculous, absolutely ridiculous. A murderer is on the loose and not a single person has done a darn thing about it! The police can’t track him. Oh, they try. They try but have no such luck. He calls himself Jack. Jack the Ripper. He writes letters to the police, expresses how he himself is the murderer, and they still fail to find the man! It’s absurd, really. Foolish on the police’s part! Absolutely foolish. I bet he’s laughing, at the police, at the rest of us. He must be. I would be if I were him. He could slaughter the whole town and the police still wouldn’t bat an eye. Anyone of us could be next. Sure, five of his victims had been prostitutes, all killed near the Whitechapel District. But who knows? Maybe he’ll have a change in course. Perhaps he’ll kill a man next. Or a child! Oh God, what if he kills a child? I couldn’t bear the thought of it. A little girl or boy with their throat slit, body mutilated. Gosh, it’s awful. Entirely horrendous. They really ought to capture him. They need to, as I don’t feel safe here any longer. I lock the doors, I stay in my room, hidden under the covers of my bed, and yet I still fear he will manage to break in and take me. It’s not a life. It’s not a life at all. And it won’t be until this man is caught.

Jenkins, John Philip. “Jack the Ripper.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., www.britannica.com/biography/Jack-the-Ripper. 

Age of Consent Established

The Criminal Law Amendment Act of 1885

The 1885 Criminal Law Amendment Act called for the "Protection of Women and Girls, the suppression of brothels, and other purposes" (Wikipedia, 2020). This Act came into action to replace the prior Offences against the Person Act of 1861, which set the age of consent at just twelve years old. A public interest in increasing protection of children rose in 1885 in the wake of a newspaper exposé about the "White Slave Trade" of young girls, leading to the passage of the 1885 Criminal Law Amendment Act. This law highlighted an underlying conflict of the difference between child protection and a need to regulate the sexuality of juveniles. Many people in the Victorian Era believed that giving consent was a responsibility that girls could not hold until they reached a certain level of mental maturity that could only develop way after physical development was complete. It was thought that until a girl reached full physical and mental maturity, she must be protected not only from men but from herself and her own sexual feelings. The wording of the proclamation is quite important in that rather than bestowing the power of consent to girls above the age of sixteen, it simply took away the right of consent from girls under the age of sixteen. While it may seem that the main purpose of the Act is to protect, it really means to control. The 1885 Criminal Law Amendment Act has since been repealed, but was not done so until 1956 by the Sexual Offences Act. 

The current events in which I just witnessed have certainly left me in utter turmoil. I have just returned from the home of the Bretton's where a young girl had been accompanying them while her father lay ill. Who am I to pass judgment, but that little girl--Polly, I believe they called--Oh, the temperament of that young girl! So young, yet so endearing! My mind grew an attention to the way she responded to the young auburn boy, but oh, not as young! Graham is but sixteen years old, while she grows to only six! Her infatuation with this young man grows daily, as does my aching heart. Surely she is not of twelve years of age, so how could she possibly consent to her actions? I would hope that a respectable boy of his age would know this is not of appropriate dealings--his auburn locks hold that countenance of trust--but this girl knows of no such structure! How can Mrs. Bretton, and all other inhabitants of the property, allow this juvenile to express her feelings in such a way? My woes cry out to a young girl plagued by her own infractions, for she knows not that her sexuality is a dangerous one, and she must not express these feelings until she is of age where she can not abuse it. To imagine that Mrs. Bretton could possibly allow the grooming of this girl of six with this boy of sixteen--Oh! I cannot bear the thought. And with a goddaughter of twenty-three in inhabitance? Could she not alleviate us of the turmoil; could she not rob him of his attentions to the girl? The poor Polly, falling victim to a temptation that she should not hold! She must be contained, locked away and hidden, until the age of twelve when she can emerge as a fully-matured woman. I worry so for the safety of our children, and this worry will not dissipate until something is done of the matter. 

Works Cited

Bates, Victoria. "The Legacy of 1885: Girls and the Age of Sexual Consent." History and Policy, 8 September 2015,

http://www.historyandpolicy.org/policy-papers/papers/the-legacy-of-1885-girls-and-the-age-of-sexual-consent

Brontë, Charlotte. "Villette." COVE Studio, 2020, https://studio.covecollective.org/documents/villette-2 

"Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885." Wikipedia, Wikipedia Foundation, 13 August 2020, 

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminal_Law_Amendment_Act_188

British Officials are murdered In Dublin (May 1882) Crime

Chief Secretary of Ireland, Lord Frederick Cavendish, and his under-secretary TH Burke were stabbed to death in Phoenix Park, Dublin. The murders outraged the public in Britain and, much against his will, provoked Prime Minister William Gladstone into maintaining harsh coercive policies in Ireland (BBC). In the Victorian Era, crime wasn't tolerated in any form or fashion. If one were to commit a crime they would be tried in court and were probably given a brutal sentence as punishment. However, because they were so keen on cracking down on crime, sometimes officers would report thefts as lost property to make the crime statistics smaller and make it seem as if there is little to no crime in their town (Emsley). In poorer sections of the communities, the police didn't bother to report offenses. Because most of the crimes at the time were a robbery or petty theft due to the high amount of people living in poverty, most felt this is why at the time the crimes weren't a big deal to the police. But, when the crimes turned more brutal and transitioned from petty theft to murders and stabbings, Parliament became concerned. The killing of these two government officials and the murders of Jack the Ripper in 1888 shocked everyone into fear. In the Victorian Era, violence was frowned upon and rarely occurred (Emsley), so when it did occur, people didn't know what to do other than catch the culprit and to give the victims justice. The significance of including this event on the timeline is the simple fact that at the time, violence was frowned upon and that violence is one of the key elements in this story. "The Picture of Dorian Gray," by Oscar Wilde was written before its time in which the commoners of the Victorian Era considered Wilde's work taboo because of the themes he highlights in the story.  

God holds the world in his palm, but I pray he gives England an extra morsel of his affections tonight. The cold streets will not be enough to warm those murderous, penniless souls that roam the streets for nourishment as the clouds blanket the moon above. Alas, not even Myrtle's cabbage soup will be enough to keep the peasants idle for temptation is a demon that sports pointy shoes and lilac pantyhose. If the night floosies are not enough to quench a fool's thirst I pray blood isn't his next predecessor. 

BBC."Victorian Britain." BBC History .

2014, http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/timeline/victorianbritain_timeline_...

Emsley, Clive. "Crime and the Victorians" BBC. British History. Feb. 17,

    2011, http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/victorians/crime_01.shtml

Wilde, Oscar.The Picture of Dorian Gray. Cove Studio.

   1890, https://studio.covecollective.org/anthologies/frankenstein-or-the-modern...

"Galerie Georges Petit" Opens

In 1881, the renowned art gallery, Galerie Georges Petit opened to the public at 12, Rue Godot de Mauroy in Paris, France. It was operated successfully by the famous French art dealer, Georges Petit, who inherited his father's art firm in 1877. Petit was known for his exhibition of Impressionistic works at extravagant gallery events, even attracting famous Impressionists of the time, such as Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Claude Monet, and Camille Pissarro. The Galerie Georges Petit would go on to later be relocated to 8, Rue de Seze-- directly in the heart of Paris. While Petit's gallery would go on to posthumously host the works of cultural icons of the art world such as Henri Matisse and Pablo Picasso, the Galerie Georges Petit still served as a "popular alternative exhibition space" to the official Salon de Paris in the late 19th century ("Georges Petit"). It is difficult to understate the cultural influence of the Impressionist artwork/artists displayed at some point in time at the Galerie Georges Petit. Even the famous "Rue de Seze" location of the gallery would be referenced by Oscar Wilde in Chapter Nine of The Picture of Dorian Gray, as the character Basil Hallward alludes to the fact that his work was to be exhibited at the very gallery of Georges Petit himself (Wilde). The fact that Paris is the art capital of the world is undeniable, and Wilde's inclusion of Hallward's work as being worthy of being displayed by Petit helps exemplify Basil's artistic talent.

As I stroll the moonlit streets of Picadilly, I have garnered much cognizance of my own querulous notions. Every evening as of late, I find myself passing the Royal Academy of Arts with a sordid disdain! I detest the gallery I once viewed with nothing but folly; I now see her so-called "masterpieces" are nothing but tawdry trinkets to be gawked at by the British bourgeois. I am carefully reticent of my censure, but I still must declare that I fear my most recent of abstruse revelations. I know my words henceforth shall be declared as incorrigible and covetous, but I fear that my numerous artistic endeavours thus far have transformed me into the most unbecoming of drudges. I ponder how an artist such as Basil Hallward could have rumoured prospects of an exhibition in the cultural heart of the Rue de Seze, nonetheless under the curation of Georges Petit himself! In the meantime, works such as mine are confined to London alone? What nonsense! I aspire to reach the level of servility attained by Hallward; for him to have attracted the likes of an influential figure such as Petit. I long for nothing more from that detestable Hallward; no affluential provisions could undo my corrupted reverie. To wish to attain Hallward's artistic ability would prove a hindrance to my own blossoming talents! I have no wish to mar the achievements of my rival-- only a sanguine desire to exceed them. I should like to meet his muse, Dorian Gray...   

Works Cited

"Georges Petit." Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 27 Sept. 2020, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Petit. Accessed 18 Oct. 2020. 

"Royal Academy of Arts." Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 1 Oct. 2020, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Academy_of_Arts. Accessed 18 Oct. 2020.

Wilde, Oscar. "The Picture of Dorian Gray." COVE Studio, 2020, https://studio.covecollective.org/anthologies/frankenstein-or-the-modern.... Accessed 18 Oct. 2020.

Egyptomania

Sphinx (late 1800's)

The discovery of the pyramids at Giza and the Sphinx have fascinated citizens of the world for thousands of years. Since Napoleon’s invasion of Egypt in 1798, much of Europe had made it a priority to discover as much of the artifacts as possible. Little of the pyramids construction and origin remain a mystery. During the reign of Queen Victoria there were several archeological expeditions led in Egypt to further explore the ruins of the pyramids as well as the Sphinx. 

The Great Sphinx of Giza is a statue made of limestone, carved from the bedrock approximately 66ft tall by 240 ft long. It is thought to be designed and constructed by the Egyptians during the reign of pharaoh Khafre (circa 2558-2532 BC).

The Sphinx itself is a mythical creature originated by the ancient Greeks. The Sphinx had the head of a human, a falcon, cat or sheep and the body of a lion with the wings of an eagle. In Greek mythology the human head is often that of a woman, who was said to be cruel and would devour those who could not answer her riddles. The Sphinx in Egypt is shown as a man and often regarded as less evil than his Greek female counterpart but is still revered as a symbol of strength and power.

There’s a very good bet that H.G. Wells joined in the fascination over Egypt and its mystical culture. There is much to be said about Egyptian discoveries making headlines in England at the time. Archaeologist Andrew MacCallum published a letter documenting his discovery of a secret rock chamber in the Temple of Aboo Simbeil in March of 1874. The Time Machine was published in 1895.  

“Imagine what wonders lie there in the sand. From this humble desk I read the discoveries of men far greater than myself. Men who longed for adventure and sought to uncover the mysteries of the ancient world. It seems quite like the makings of something from an alien world. How could mortal men transport those stones and carve such delicate features into rock? What secrets are buried underneath? The papers tell of treasure, of gold, tombs filled with mummified remains. How queer. I’ve compiled enough notes in my journals. Gathered the necessary resources. No longer shall I sit in listless misery watching the wonders of the desert be uncovered by others. Martha knows my intention though she cannot understand why I must feel the sand beneath my very feet, develop callouses from digging with my own shovel. Perhaps I will be the next King of England with all of the glorious treasure I’m bound to find!”

 Works Cited

Wikipedia contributors. "Sphinx." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, 28 Nov. 2020. Web. 29 Nov. 2020.

Wikipedia contributors. "Great Sphinx of Giza." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, 29 Nov. 2020. Web. 29 Nov. 2020.

Kenna Hawes. “Oscar Wilde’s “The Sphinx” and Victorian Egyptomania.” Victorian Web. 11 Sept 2003. Web. 29 Nov. 2020

Elementary Education Act of 1870

Also known as Forster's Education Act, the Elementary Education Act of 1870 was the first of many acts that set standards for the education of children between the ages of 5 and 12. This was a huge milestone for the time and came about as an expressed need to educate the recently-enfranchised public thanks to the Reform Act of 1867. Despite the influx of votes the Reform Act procured, it still mainly applied to men. Therefore, as a result, the Education Act primarily focused on boys. It was still considered inclusive, however, since it pertained to school-age children as a whole population. Although not highly reformatory in regards to education as a whole, it set the stage for later reforms to give education to the masses, especially in areas that were lacking educational opportunities before the Education Act. This is especially progressing for women's education, which had been discouraged by many due to the popular belief that education lowered women's reproductive health. This resulted in college being a fairly taboo action for women, particularly before education reform began taking place towards the end of the Victorian Era. This is highly contradictory considering that one of the few socially-acceptable career choices for unmarried women was being a teacher.

Lucy Snowe, as a professional young woman, has garnered herself a respectable reputation has a school teacher with Madame Beck. She commands her classroom and properly teaches young children English, as a young woman should. Even without an education, it doesn't take much of a woman to know that she should be highly regarded. Not only does she conduct herself well in the classroom, she learned all of that without proper education herself! While it's evident she had been taught as a young girl, she received no instruction for the management of youths, many of whom are in a similar boat as her, I'm sure. Though, on that topic, her education may be a reason she has yet to wed. After all, should she wed she wouldn't have all of the financial troubles that have woefully possessed her life up until this point. That is just one reason women don't need much formal education; if they get along with learning on the job until a man comes to save them from financial troubles, there's no need. I myself get along just fine; my husband earns a wealthy wage and my children are the light of my life. What more could an English woman ask for?

works cited:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_Education_Act_1870#Effects

Villette by Charloette Bronte 

First Female Artist enrolled to Royal Academy

Even though the prestigious Royal Academy of Arts was founded in London in 1768 with the help of two women, no woman was ever enrolled to the Royal Academy Schools for the study of academic art until 1860-- and the two founding female members were scarcely referenced or formally recognized by the other founders ("Women Artists"). Laura Herford made history by being the first woman to be enrolled as a student to the Royal Academy Schools in 1860. The official public allowance for the admittance of women to the Royal Academy was not officially recognized until 1861, despite petitions for women to be accepted to the Royal Academy being submitted since the 1840s. Even though her career as an artist was short-lived due to her death in 1870, Laura Herford made history by being admitted to the Royal Academy Schools by signing her drawing applications with the vague initial, "L. Herford." It was assumed that the ambiguity of her signature helped mask her gender from the admissions tutors, but she was offered a position regardless based solely on the merit of her artistic rendering ("Laura Herford"). Published in 1848, The Tenant of Wildfell Hall by Anne Bronte directly addressed some of these long-standing issues of respecting women's' representation in the field of professional art by Bronte writing a female artist character named Helen Graham who challenged the cultural taboo of women making a profession out of art-- especially as a means to live independently (Bronte). Helen Graham had to use similar tricks to the real-life Laura Herford, such as misconstruing her name/gender and sending her works away to be sold for compensation through a third party. Although movements towards professional female artists being culturally acceptable didn't flourish until after the death of Anne Bronte in 1849, women like Laura Herford helped female artists alike get their foot in the door and begin to be recognized as equal-- changing the problematic threshold of conventional art culture as Bronte criticized throughout The Tenant of Wildfell Hall.

Works Cited

Bronte, Anne. The Tenant of Wildfell Hall. 1848. The COVE. https://studio.covecollective.org/anthologies/frankenstein-or-the-modern.... Accessed 29 Nov 2020.

"Laura Herford." Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 4 May 2020, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laura_Herford. Accessed 29 Nov 2020.

"Women Artists." Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 27 Nov 2020, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laura_Herford. Accessed 29 Nov 2020.

Matrimonial Causes Act of 1857

The Matrimonial Causes Act of 1857 was one of several acts passed by Parliament from 1857 to 1878, reforming the law on divorce. Before 1857, divorce for the average person was almost impossible, especially for women. Women were under complete control of her husband, and had no power if he was having an affair, or abusing her in any way. The law required proof of adultery of either party, but a woman also had to show proof of cruelty from her husband. However, a woman could still lose custody of her children if she was found guilty of adultery. In addition, because women’s property became their husbands after marriage at this time, if a woman attempted to separate herself from her marriage, her husband would retain legal claim over all of her assets. The threat of being left with no money and the loss of children forced many women into staying in a bad marriage. 

By passing the Act, divorce became a matter of the court rather than church which was opposed by many, the Church of England being the biggest opposer. 

A huge advocate for divorce reform in order to give women rights was Caroline Norton, an English social reformer, and author of such works as “Brief Summary in Plain Language of the Most Important Laws Concerning Women”, and “English Laws for Women in the 19th Century”, among many others. Norton’s own marriage was abusive, and the trappings of marriage under law at this time inspired her to rally for change, and protection for women. She even wrote desperate letters to Queen Victoria, pleading for help for all the women trapped by their husbands, which had a major influence on getting the Act passed by Parliament. 

The Tenant of Wildfell Hall was published in 1848, with the novel taking place in the 1820s. Bronte used the character of Helen Huntington to address the unfortunately common occurrence of women trapped in bad and abusive marriages. Had this act existed when the novel took place, Helen would not have had to resort to running away and living in hiding in order to remove herself and her son from her husband's influence.

http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/familyhistory/bloodlines/familysecrets.shtml?entry=matrimonial_causes_act&theme=familysecrets

Matrimonial_Causes_Act_1857

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divorce

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Caroline-Norton

First Public Aquarium

According to Wikipedia, “The first public aquarium was opened in London Zoo in May 1853.”(Wikipedia, 2020) This public aquarium was known as the Fish House. This set the stage for other new and enthusiastic public attraction owners and up and coming attraction owners such as P.T. Barnum to follow suit with their own aquarium attractions. Barnum’s aquarium was established in 1856 as a part of his American Museum located in Broadway in New York City until unfortunately it burned to the ground. I think that people living in 1853 England would find this concept of a housing of aquatic animals to be very strange and kind of alarming with the only thing between their families and themselves and these massive sea creatures being a pane of glass. 

I take another drag of my pipe as I read the final headline that will grace my eyes in the morning's paper. "Martha, what's this I'm reading about this here ‘public aquarium’ at the London Zoo? Says here it’s the first of its kind, but I can’t seem to figure out what in tarnation the damn thing is! What say we take the kids the day after tomorrow, huh?” “Well that sounds lovely, George.” “Great, pack your things, I still don’t know what the hell this damn thing is, could be gone for a whole month, hell maybe even a year! You’d think they would advertise these things a little better don’t ya think, Martha?” “Yes, George.” “You think little Billy and Annie would like it?” “I don’t know, George.” “Gah, what the hell. They’ll love it. You’ll love it. I’ll probably hate it, but that’s what I’ve got me pipe for, ah?” “Yes, George.” I turn to the back page of today’s paper, the funnies page. “Aha, Martha come here you’ve gotta see this. You’ll never guess what this little pussycat did! He kicked his milk off the table and *wheezing* and then *more wheezing* he drank it off the floor!” “Yes, George.” 

“1853 In the United Kingdom.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 16 June 2020, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1853_in_the_United_Kingdom.

“Public Aquarium.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 28 Aug. 2020, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_aquarium.

"Comparative Physiognomy" Published

Physiognomy was a popular method of character study in the Victorian Era, in which one would "objectively" deduce a person's morality or personality based on their physical attributes alone. While physiognomy has a deep, intercultural history stretching back far before the 19th century, the practice wasn't widespread until the early 18th century, when European scholars began to develop theories surrounding its' merit as a credible scientific practice ("Physiognomy"). With this cultural emergence in popularity, English authors such as Charlotte Bronte began to employ physiognomy in their writing as a means to not only describe a character's appearance but to also provide the reader with context as to whether or not a character's appearance would fit within the contextual conventions of attractiveness in the depicted society. For example, in Villette, Mme. Beck employs M. Paul to scan Lucy Snowe's facial features as a quick judge of her character to determine whether or not she should be permitted entry into the pensionnat (Bronte). One year before Villette was published, Comparative Physiognomy by James Redfield was published in the United States in 1852-- showing how the scope of this phenomena extended beyond Europe, into the New World. In Comparative Physiognomy, Redfield compares human attributes and their level of trustworthiness to characteristics of wild animals, similar to Bronte's description of Graham's red hair in Villette as "lion's locks" (Chap. III). In modern times, physiognomy has become seen as a pseudoscience that was used previously as a means to justify prejudice against unconventional appearances.

Presently, I still find myself aghast from this most stunning revelation in regards to the "esteemed" Dr. John. How could a figure depicted so benevolently be revealed a miscreant so foul as Graham Bretton? Surely, a man so practiced in physiognomy such as M. Paul could not look into the eyes of a demon and allow him passage into the pensionnat of his own beloved cousin! I fear the savage's favorably fair skin, Celtic lineaments, and otherwise facetious disposition have blinded M. Paul of any sensibility. Moreover, I pray this revelation of Dr. John's true identity to not be prophetic of impending calamity. Still, I ponder how his transgressions can go seemingly unnoticed. Is his countenance of sin not clear as day? Do his auburn locks not conjure up an imminent betrayal akin to that of Judas? Alas, it would not be the first time one of his kind has hidden their perfidious nature. Ere long, the light of day will shine upon his mane of "chestnut" and reveal those hidden shades of hellfire. I pray this happens before he corrupts any more souls of the people of Rue Fossette. The global physiognomic studies of man, as provided by God and science, prove him guilty. My conjecture predicts this beastly lion has masked his indignant machinations through the subtle malpractice of his profession. Oh, how sardonic his fate has proven! No doctor could craft a draught to cure such a malady, no repentance could heal the afflictions of inherited sin.

Works Cited

Bronte, Charlotte. "Villette." COVE Studio, 2020,  https://studio.covecollective.org/documents/villette-2. Accessed 12 Sept 2020.

"Physiognomy" Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 14 Aug 2020, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiognomy. Accessed 12 Sept 2020.

Redfield, James. "Comparative Physiognomy: or, Resemblances Between Men and Animals (1852)." The Public Domain Review, https://publicdomainreview.org/collection/comparative-physiognomy-or-res.... Accessed 12 Sept 2020.

1851 Religious Census

As we know, religion is a prime theme in the novel that is one of the elements that keep Helen and some of the other characters humble. Helen's course of action in the midst of her plight reflects her strength and her trust in God. After our discussion in class, I realized how I didn't really consider Helen's Christian journey and how that is such a huge factor in her character development. As someone said in class, Helen is a product of her environment and religion was a prime platform that kept people motivated and stable. The Tenant of Wildfell Hall does a great job of displaying the different opinions and personalities that people adhere to within the Christian belief. This now leads me to the census of 1851 which displays the opposite of Helen's strife and values about the Christian faith. 

In the decennium census survey, of 1851, it was discovered that eighty percent of the supporters who visited welsh places of worship were non-conformists while the remaining twenty percent supported the established (catholic) church.

Another thing to consider is secularism went mainstream in England a few years after the set timeframe of the novel. Hints why the census read the way it did. 

 In addition to this, some believe that the results may be skewed because a fifth of the entire population was said to be Anglican while about two-fifths of the population didn't attend church at all (BBC). This was a shock to many in the public eye but they failed to consider those who fall below the poverty line, and the sick and shut-in. Also, this was Britain's one and only religious census. This leads me to believe that whoever was in charge at the moment didn't want news reflecting that the Church of England was losing its fire and that people were now Baptist, Prebestrysterian, Methodist, Calvinist, or etc. This is the turning point in history where followers began to expand within the Abrahamic religion and branch off into a sect that fits better with what they believe in. 

Works Cited 

BBC."Victorian Britain" BBC History. Accessed 28 Nov 2020. http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/timeline/victorianbritain_timeline_...

BBC. "Religion in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries."BBC Wales History. Accessed 28 Nov 2020. https://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/history/sites/themes/guide/ch16_religion_19t...'s%20one%20and%20only%20religious,Wesleyans%2C%2012%3B%20others%202.

The Public Health Act of 1848

Public Health Act of 1848

The Public Health Act of 1848 was the first step in paving the road to improving public health. In 1842, Edwin Chadwick published his essay, "The Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Population of Great Britain," paying the price of publication himself as the Poor Law Commission did not want to be associated with it. In his report, Chadwick argued that spending the money to improve public health would be cost effective, as less people would seek poor relief if the health of the poor improved. He considered the most important steps in improving health to be bettering drainage and sewage systems, removing wastes from homes and roads, ensuring clean drinking water, and appointing a medical officer in each town. After yet another severe cholera outbreak in the summer of 1848, the government was forced to act and passed the Public Heath Act of 1848. This Act established a Central Board of Health, but it had limited powers and no money; it provided a framework that could be used by local authorities, but could not compel much action. Even though the Public Health Act of 1848 may not have been able to ennact much action, it started the conversation and paved the way for improvements in health to happen. 

Dearest Paulina,

Will my woes never be alleviated? Will I never find peace in this cruel world? So many lives that I love have been lost--and what am I to do? Benjamin held a high temperature for the last fortnight and stopped taking water Sunday afternoon. He claimed he was so thirsty, yet the well water seemed to worsen his countenance. I remained by his bedside during the day, cleaning after his messes and messes against his own person. My dear friend, he appeared in his doom but mother assured me of his recovery! Alas, she told a lie! This morning, when I entered to change his bed cloths, I found my dear brother laying cold and green. He would not respond to my inquiries of his countenance; he would not respond at all. I held my pocket mirror to his nose and alas, no fog! My dearest brother, dead! And now, I am plagued with a deeper fear, for I have noticed my mother is of lower spirits than usual, and has had trouble keeping her meals ingested. I fear, Paulina, that my mother will meet the same doom as Benjamin, and what am I to do? How, Paulina--how did you remain composed in your father's illness? How did you keep your faith and hope? I must be strong, but who will be here if she leaves? What will become of me if my home becomes grave? I am not yet married, and will surely have to find work to support myself--but my friend, as a governess? I fear such a life of seclusion! I fear being alone, Paulina! I fear that the health of my loved ones will never improve, but I would rather perish in their same fate than live a life alone!

Works Cited

"The 1848 Public Health Act." UK Parliament, 2020, www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/transformingsociety/towncountry/towns/tyne-and-wear-case-study/about-the-group/public-administration/the-1848-public-health-act/. 

"Local Board of Health." Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 29 May 2020,

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_board_of_health.

"Public Health Act 1848 and the General Board of Health."  Policy Navigator, 2020, The Health Foundation. 

navigator.health.org.uk/theme/public-health-act-1848-and-general-board-health.

The Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood

Artistry had a longstanding foothold in European society, as famous artists such as da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Rembrandt were dedicated figures and perceived as more than man. In 1848 a group of English painters, poets, and art critics founded the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, a collective experience designed to return nineteenth century European art to that of the Quattrocento Italian art. The Quattrocento period refers to all Italian art created between 1400-1499 which consisted of an abundance of detail, vivid color aesthetics and complexity. The group directly rejected the Mannerist artists, the form of art that gained exposure around 1520 succeeding Raphael and Michaelangelo. Specifically the group rejected the teachings of Sir Joshua Reynolds, the founder of the English Royal Academy of Arts. They found the teachings and artistry of Reynolds to be lackadaisical, thoroughly absent of complexity which to the Brotherhood was a direct insult to artistry as a whole. The group was subject to harsh criticism as they were seen as very backwards facing, understandably so as the world of art is constantly looking forward yet this group fought viciously to return to a more medieval style of painting. One of the groups’ most notorious critics, Charles Dickens, who had become thrown into the spotlight of Victorian England found the portrayal of the Holy Family “blasphemous” and found their entire style backwards- looking and simply ugly. 

Ah, Basil, I recently viewed the work from John Everett Millais and I must say it is most certainly butter upon bacon. His Christ in the House of His Parents holds no standing in my opinion, in the cast contrary to yours dear Basil. You exercise such amazing beauty unlike that absurd Pre- Raphealite Brotherhood, how grotesque and backwards! I have no such understanding for artistry that seeks to live in the past, unlike your portraits. Don’t sell me a dog! I would be half rats to consume any more abominations from that group, how dare they condemn the teachings of Sir Joshua Reynolds. Perhaps I am just cynical, or perhaps I am astonishingly self aware. Alas, art is for the artistry’s sake and you, Basil, are an artist unlike any other.  

Works Cited

Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood. (2020, October 03). Retrieved October 27, 2020, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-Raphaelite_Brotherhood

Wilde, Oscar. (1890) The Picture of Dorian Gray. [online] Available from: Cove Studio [Accessed September 2020]

Penny Black

The way in which people communicated over distance has been through writing since the beginning of time. Letters would be mailed, and the recipient would be responsible for paying the postage fee upon receiving the letter. Due to postal rates being high, confusing, and inconsistent, Sir Roland Hill, who was an English teacher, inventor, and social reformer, proposed the idea of an adhesive stamp that would be placed on letters to indicate prepayment of postage to simplify matters. In 1937 HIll was given a two year contract to run the new system. With a partner, Henry Cole, they announced a competition for the design of the new stamp, and having over 2,600 entries none were considered good enough. Eventually Roland Hill endorsed a rough design of an easily recognisable profile of the former princess Victoria. He chose this because it would be difficult to forge. The stamp was first issued in the United Kingdom on May 1, 1840 but was not valid for use until the 6th. Because the telephone was not invented until 1876 the regulation of the stamp made sending letters alot easier and affordable for most people. The Penny Black stamp allowed letters up to one half of an ounce to be mailed for a flat rate of one cent regardless of distance. This was especially usefull in the novel, The Tenant of Wildfell Hall, because the letters were being written, sent, and recieved from the very first page of the book. 

Works Cited

"Penny Black." Wikipedia, Wikimedia Founation, 23, November, 2020, en.wikipedia.org/Penny_Black.

Custody of Infants Act 1839

The Custody of Infants Act 1839 was a movement started by a woman named Caroline Norton. Norton had a terrible marriage with her husband and created this movement arguing for the right of mothers to have custody of their children if they were to get divorced. Until this point, women were not allowed to have custody of their children if they were to get a divorce from their husbands. Not only did the husbands control all of the money within the marriage, but they were the only ones who had the right to file for a divorce. It was quite literally against the law for women to take their children if their husbands divorced them. This Act allowed women who were considered to be non-adulterous mothers to petition the court to gain custody of their children up until the age of seven if they were no longer married to their husbands. Although the Act did not guarantee custody to the mothers of these children, this changed a lot about the power dynamics in these marriages because women were finally gaining the right to have their own legal identity outside of their husband. This started an entire movement based around child custody laws. It was called the Tender years doctrine. The 1839 Act was repealed by Parliament and replaced with the Custody of Infants Act 1873.

Works Cited:

“The Custody of Infants Act 1839.” British Women's Emancipation since the Renaissance, historyofwomen.org/custody.html.

“Custody of Infants Act 1839.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 10 Sept. 2020, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Custody_of_Infants_Act_1839.

The First Opium War

The First Opium War was a chorological series of engagements between the United Kingdom and China. The initiation of this war between the super powers began when China attempted to step in a suppress the opium trade. This suppression lit a fire under the United Kingdom because the United Kingdom was participating in the illegal exportation of opium from India to China since the beginning of the 18^th century. From this, the addiction rates in China skyrocketed causing China’s economy and social wellbeing to ultimately deplete at an exponentially fast rate. During the Spring of 1839, the Chinese government managed to seize copious amounts of opium from British traders. In 1840, United Kingdom decided to send a task force to Hong Kong China with orders to occupy and attack the city. The UK government continued these attacks for Chinese forces for an entire year. In 1842, the UK government and Chinese government decided to make amends and created the Treaty of Nanjing which ultimately ended the violent wars between the two super powers. The theme of drug addiction, specifically opium within The Tenant of Wildfell Hall is extremely prevalent. In several passages of the novel, Arthur Huntington is oftentimes described be addicted to opium in excess and the addiction is credited as one of his reasons of declination.

Brontë, Anne, and Margaret Lane. The Tenant of Wildfell Hall ; Agnes Grey. Dent, 1980.

“Opium Wars.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., www.britannica.com/topic/Opium-Wars.

The Language of the Handkerchief

During the Victorian Era, handkierchiefs and fans were very popular accessories and were also used to communicate to others in nonverbal ways. This language was created by Queen Elizabeth herself in order to communicate to her staff. It was also seen as a status symbol for the wealthy. It soon became increasingly popular under Queen Victoria's reign and women of all socail statuses began using them to communicate. Since women during this time could not communicate desire with men the way we do now, they would use their handkerchief to flirt with men they found attractive. Dropping the handkerchief in front of a man was a way to gain his attention, drawing it across the cheek meant "I love you", drawing it through the hands meant "I hate you", and many more. We see the handkerchief language being used throughout "The Tenant of Wildfell Hall", especially within the last couple of chapters where Helen is distraut as she tells Gilbert to leave her alone. She covers her face with the cloth meaning "I am sorry" or "leave me alone."

https://handkerchiefheroes.com/home/

The Life and Age of Woman

In 1835, The Life and Age of Woman was created and published by A. Alden Barre. The picture depicts the seven phases of a woman’s life during the Victorian era. The caption states: “The virtuous woman is a crown to her husband.” In this image specifically, it shows the life of a woman and what their entire life was supposed to model. From early as age 1, women during the Victorian were made to model the elder women in their lives as well as observe and aspire to be just like them. The little girl is then expected to grow up into a young lady and tend to domestic attributes as well as to serve as a child- bearer and maternal figure. Once the woman reaches age 30, she’s expected to cleanse herself of all sexual and physical pleasures by instead, performing domestic activities such as tending to the house and becoming a great mother.  This publication mirrors the life expectancy described in The Tenant of Wildfell Hall, specifically Helen. Helen is trapped within her marriage and can’t leave due to the laws restricting women. She isn’t allowed to run away or perform tasks that she would like to due to all of the legal restrictions. Not only is Helen affected by the social and legal restrictions of women during the Victorian era, but so are all the other female characters.

Brontë, Anne, and Margaret Lane. The Tenant of Wildfell Hall ; Agnes Grey. Dent, 1980.

The Factory Act of 1833

Child Coal Workers

Because of the rise of the Industrial Revolution, factories and mills sprung up all throughout Great Britain. Unskilled workers from the countryside, as well as immigrants, flocked to the factories for work. Many of these workers were children who would labor in dirty and dangerous jobs for little pay. The three most common employers of children during this era were the textile mills, and coal mines, and many others found employment as chimney sweeps in London and other major cities. Child labor became an overarching issue in the early 1800s due to a lack of effort to improve working conditions by the upper class. In 1833, the Government passed a Factory Act to improve conditions for children working in factories. Young children were working exceedingly long hours in workplaces where conditions were often terrible. The laws detailed in this act were: 

• no child workers under nine years of age 
• employers must have an age certificate for their child workers 
• children of 9-13 years to work no more than nine hours a day 
• children of 13-18 years to work no more than 12 hours a day 
• children are not to work at night 
• two hours schooling each day for children 
• four factory inspectors appointed to enforce the law 

Though this was step in the right direction, the mistreatment of child workers did not cease. Young children were still forced to work under terrible conditions. Safety regulations for these factories were scarce, but the children still worked in order to provide for their families.  

Although I hired her towards the end of my time in this realm, I am profoundly glad Miss Lucy had decided to come work as my Nurse-Companion. I know she was desperate for work and I couldn’t bear the thought of that girl having to work in the mines or something else of the sort. I heard rumour of a young boy dying on my road while working as a chimney sweep. Working on a three-story home, he must have tripped on the roof and fallen to his death. He was only twelve years of age. My heart aches for his family. It is a very dark day when a mother loses a child. It is perhaps the worst tragedy a person could face. I hope now that boy, I believe his name to be Henry, finds peace in heaven alongside my beloved Frank. I can only pray that Lucy does not befall the same fate after my passing. She is a kind soul, and I would hate to see her hurt, just for a spot of money. I will arrange for her to be allotted a sum of money after my death, so that she does not turn to physical labor in these terrible conditions. Hopefully she will be able to find a job as a governess once I’m gone from this world. 

Price, Paxton. “Victorian Child Labor and the Conditions They Worked In.” Victorian Children, 2013, victorianchildren.org/victorian-child-labor/. 

Tuttle, Carolyn. “Child Labor during the British Industrial Revolution.” EHnet, eh.net/encyclopedia/child-labor-during-the-british-industrial-revolution/. 

The Paletot

The paletot was a term coined by the French (originally rooted from the word “palla”) and it refers to a double-breasted overcoat with peaked lapels. At first, in the eighteenth century, the paletot was a term used to describe the many different types of overcoats. However, in the nineteenth century, the paletot was classified as a waisted overcoat. The term continued to evolve by the end of the nineteenth century as well as into the twentieth century, where the paletot was considered to be a topcoat with waist suppression. But in the nineteenth century, they were mostly referring to overcoats that were seen throughout the city. It is said to be similar to a frock coat, which is a formal coat for men that includes a skirt that stops at knee length. Features of the paletot coat include no waist seam, a showing of the side seams, multiple outside pockets (though, this varies with every paletot coat), peaked lapels, double-breasted, top buttons not being buttoned, and typically having a darker fabric. With that saying, every paletot is different and some bend the rules (i.e: although most paletots are knee-length, some happen to be ankle-length) (Schneider). Paletots can be worn by both men and women, but in the 19th century, they seemed to be slightly more popular with men. 

Everyone wears ‘em, nowadays. The paletots. Ya know, those double-breasted overcoats. The ones with the peaked lapels that got the waist suppression. Men, women, everyone. They wear ‘em everywhere. Always catch strangers flashing ‘em in town, sauntering down the streets, hands stuffed in their outside pockets. Smoking pipes, sometimes, although this is rarely ever the ladies. Nay, mostly the men. They wear their top hats and clean collars, and their top buttons are almost always undone. The women wear their corsets, paletots over ‘em, with their fancy bonnets. Always so nice and formal. The colors don’t change. Dark, never, or rarely bright. Plain, solid colors. Blacks, blues, and grays, those are the most common. ‘Specially with the fellows around ‘ere. People wear ‘em a lot when they sidle up and down the city. I don’t blame ‘em. Why, I got a couple at home myself. My wife, too. She’s got far too many to count, all at my expense. Rarely an occasion where one don’t suit. A must in today’s world, really. Could get ‘em customized in so many different ways. Knee-length, ankle-length. The style always changes. Always evolving. Don’t know why someone wouldn’t have one, for even I could probably use another. 

Works Cited

Schneider, Sven Raphael. “Paletot - The Double Breasted Overcoat.” Gentleman's Gazette, Publisher Gentleman's Gazette LLC Publisher Logo, 14 Apr. 2020, www.gentlemansgazette.com/paletot-double-breasted-overcoat/.

"Last Days of a Philosopher" Published

In 1830, Consolations In Travel; Or, The Last Days of a Philosopher was published posthumously from the collection of Sir Humphry Davy after complications from a stroke lead to his death at the age of 50 in 1829. With this work being described as a "somewhat freeform compendium of poetry" and "thoughts on science and philosophy," Davy's final publication was incredibly popular despite his preceding death-- with his multi-genre book becoming a staple of the scientific community as well as family libraries for several decades after his death ("Humphry Davy"). Referred to by Anne Bronte with the shortened title "Last Days of a Philosopher," Davy's work is directly referenced in Chapter 15 of The Tenant of Wildfell Hall in a scene where Gilbert Markham comes across a copy of the book in Helen's possession with the name "Frederick Lawrence" inscribed on the front leaf (Bronte). Anne Bronte's reference to Sir Humphry Davy's final work by both name and author helps not only to solidify the cultural significance of Sir Humphry Davy in the 19th Century, but it also helps ground The Tenant of Wildfell Hall in reality, by providing a real-world text to be alluded to by the characters in Bronte's novel. Although "Last Days of a Philosopher" is well known for its' controversial approach to answering "the questions of the universe" through science, Sir Humphry Davy's reputation seems to outlive his published works-- as he is considered by Cambridge to arguably be the "first celebrity scientist... whose popularising of science made him famous" (Cambridge). 

Works Cited

Bronte, Anne. The Tenant of Wildfell Hall. 1848. The COVE. https://studio.covecollective.org/anthologies/frankenstein-or-the-modern.... Accessed 29 Nov 2020.

"Humphry Davy." Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation. 26 Nov 2020, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humphry_Davy. Accessed 29 Nov 2020.

Davy, Humphry. "Consolations in Travel Or, The Last Days of a Philosopher." Cambridge University Press, Cambridge University Press 2020, 6 May 2013, https://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/general-science/history-s.... Accessed 29 Nov 2020.

The United Kingdom's Temperance Movement

In the early 19^th century, groups began to form in order to advocate for abstinence from alcohol.  The first of these groups was called Glasgow and West of Scotland Temperance Society and it was founded in 1829 (Wikipedia Contributors).  Before this, there were no such ideals to abstain from drinking wine, beer, or distilled spirits; it just wasn’t in the culture at the time. Besides the first group mentioned, many other groups also gained traction as they were supported by Christian churches. At the time, working-class men in England did not have the right to vote, and they wanted to prove themselves to their parliament (Wikipedia contributors).  They began the temperance movements in order to garner enough respect the earn the right to vote from the rich and elite.  Stopping their consumption of alcohol was supposed to demonstrate their dedication and ability to take on the responsibility to vote.  Specific groups were created over periods of time dedicated to the different aspects of drinking.  In 1847, a group was created to help children abstain from the activity of drinking (Wikipedia contributors).  Most of these temperance groups were aimed at the working class since they had less resources than the elite (Wikipedia contributors).  This temperance movement was against all forms of alcohol; wine, beer, and distilled spirits were all entirely prohibited for those who were involved in this stand against alcohol.  This timeline entry particularly applies to The Tennant of Wildfell Hall since it was apparent that the characters drank, but also had guests over that chose to abstain from drinking and drunkenness. 

Wikipedia contributors. "Temperance movement in the United Kingdom." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, 22 Nov. 2020. Web. 2 Dec. 2020.

Rise in Popularity of Antimony or Tartar Emetic

Although the chemical, antimony, is part of the periodic table as a metalloid that was grinded down to power and used in medicine and cosmetics since ancient Roman times, it wasn't until the nineteenth century that the popularity of it grew larger. Antimony was often compared to arsenic, which is also a chemical element and has similar properties. It's comeback was the result of antimony being banned for one hundred years in France, but antimonial cups continued to be sold and used until the late eighteenth century.  During the period of the revival of medicine, which dates from 1500s to 1825, antimony was vastly used by chemists and physicians to find a universal remedy for a great number of diseases. Antimony found its way into almost every medicine chest during the victorian era in the form of tartar emetic. Small silver cups mentioned before, made of pure antimony, was used to store wine for twenty four hours. The reaction that occured from the wine and the chemical in the antimony produced an emetic effect when consumed, which was to induce vomiting, and made it very popular in medicine during this time period. The year 1825 brought on the acceptance of orally administered antimony under the influence of cultured Victorian physicians. Outside of the medical field, this compound inspired and aided in the crimes of people like George Chapman, who was a serial killer in England and poisoned his victims with antimony. Chapman was also suspected to be Jack the Ripper. This is also how Helen succeeded at deterring Arthur Jr. from wanting to drink alchol. By her adding a little bit of tartar emetic to his brandy or wine, it made him violently sick. By him associating being sick with drinking, he soon gave it up. 

Works Cited

"Antimony." Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 23, November, 2020, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimony 

"Antimonial Cup." Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 4, November, 2020, en. wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimonial_cup

Hussey, Dr. Kristen. "May God Protect Us From such drugs and physicians! : A 17t Century Antimony Cup." Royal College of Physicians, 2018, history.rcplondon.ac.uk