Letter to Sultan Beyazid II of Istanbul

While in Florence around 1502 or 1503, Leonardo da Vinci pursued a position as a scientist and engineer in the court of Sultan Beyazid II of Istanbul. To showcase his innovative ideas, he sent a “cover letter” to the Sultan proposing four projects: a windmill, a hydraulic pump, a bridge connecting Galata to Istanbul, and a suspension bridge across the Bosporus connecting Turkey and Asia. The bridge connecting Galata to Istanbul across the Golden Horn was da Vinci’s first formal proposal for a self-supporting arched bridge. As proposed, the bridge would be the longest single span bridge at the time and self supporting due to the parabolic shape of the arches underneath it. The sultan rejected this radical proposal and da Vinci’s design remained unused. The connection between this letter and da Vinci's sketches of the arched bridge design was established in 1952, as the letter, stored in the Istanbul National Archives, had been mislabeled and misattributed. The letter is now on display in the Topkapi museum in Istanbul.

Sources:

Atalay, B. (2013, January 22). LEONARDO’S BRIDGE: Part 2. “A Bridge for the Sultan”. Retrieved May 11, 2019, from https://blog.nationalgeographic.org/2013/01/22/leonardos-bridge-part-2-a...

Erik Cleves, K. (2014, April 8). [Galata]. Retrieved May 11, 2019, from https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Galata_(13971741453).jpg

The image was taken by Erik Cleves Kristensen and is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Generic license. It is provided through Wikimedia Commons.

Leonardo da Vinci Designs Arched Bridge

Leonardo da Vinci was a proficient engineer as well as artist, and among his designs was a bridge entirely supported by the parabolic arch underneath it. His notebook includes two illustrations of this arched bridge. He specified that the bridge, which would span the Golden Horn connecting Galata to Istanbul, would be 600 braccia long, which is equivalent to 366 m or 1200 ft; 400 braccia spanned the inlet itself, with 100 braccia over the land on either side. At its highest point, the arch would rise 70 braccia, or 43 m, above the water. While da Vinci was correct in asserting that a parabolic shape would offer extraordinarily strong support, the exact mathematical techniques required to build a bridge of this design were not developed until centuries later. These sketches, found in Manuscript L, are currently located at the Institut de France in Paris.

Sources:

Atalay, B. (2013, January 22). LEONARDO’S BRIDGE: Part 2. “A Bridge for the Sultan”. Retrieved May 11, 2019, from https://blog.nationalgeographic.org/2013/01/22/leonardos-bridge-part-2-a...

Books, Maps and Calligraphic documents in the Topkapi Museum. (n.d.). Retrieved May 12, 2019, from http://kilyos.ee.bilkent.edu.tr/~history/booknmaps.html

C. (2011, April 10). Bridge built using Leonardo da Vinci's design for a self supporting bridge.Retrieved May 12, 2019, from https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Leonardo_da_Vinci_bridge_Karby.jpg (Originally photographed 2011, April 10)

The image is from Wikimedia Commons and taken by user Cntrading. It is used with the Free Art License.

French Army Destroys Sforza Monument Clay Model

Da Vinci's clay model of the Sforza monument horse was a feat of engineering, with two horse legs suspended and a total height of 24 feet. It remained standing in the Cortile Vecchio of the Castello at Milan until it was destroyed in 1499. It is believed that when the French army came across the statue they brutally destroyed it, using it as "target practice" (Grierson, 1959, p. 40). The French army's destruction was the ultimate factor in the incompletion of the monument. Since Da Vinci died in 1519, he never recreated the clay model and his horse was not attempted until centuries later with greater advancements in technology. Thus, his brilliance and Renaissance combination of art and engineering were not fully realized and appreciated until centuries later.

Completion of the Last Supper

Three years after the painting’s commission, Last Supper was completed. A digital reconstruction of what the painting might have looked like when it was finished reveals rich colors and captivating details that are barely visible today. da Vinci’s use of perspective in this painting is ingenious, and he was able to effectively use many new Renaissance techniques to create a vibrant and impactful masterpiece.

               The central vanishing point of the painting is directly behind Jesus’s head, drawing the viewer towards the main subject of the painting. Close examination reveals that da Vinci actually hammered a nail into the center of the wall and cut thin incisions radiating out that guided his painting lines and helped his accuracy. However, the perspective is not perfect because the painting is so large that it appears different depending on the viewer’s vantage point as the viewer is closer to some parts of the painting than others. To remedy this issue, da Vinci applied complex perspective, using a mix of natural and artificial perspective, as well as optical tricks to minimize distortion. He designed the painting so that the perspective appears perfect when viewed from a door in the right wall, where the monks entered the refectory. He then created an artificial ideal vantage point 30 feet from the wall, at eye level with Jesus, again emphasizing Jesus as the focus of the painting. In the painting, da Vinci used the table to hide the lines where the floor hits the back and side walls, and he painted a cornice that hides the fact that the ceiling doesn’t extend all the way above the table. This effective use of optical tricks and complex perspective shows “his mastery of complex rules of natural and artificial perspective, but it also shows his flexibility at fudging those rules when necessary” (Issacson p. 281).

               da Vinci also used newer painting ideas to create his masterpiece. Standard linear perspective had been well studied at the time, but “Leonardo’s most important contribution to the study of perspective was to broaden the concept to include not just linear perspective...but also ways of conveying depth through changes in color and clarity” (Issacson p. 274). Da Vinci included three windows in the back of the painting that look out into the far distance of a mountain range, and one can clearly see the blurriness and blueness of the mountains as a fantastic example of his aerial perspective. One can also see the impressive blue gradient of the sky, sfumato that adds to the realism of the painting. The windows extend the three dimensional space seemingly into infinity, contrasting the flatness of many previous paintings.

Jesus and the disciples surrounding him possess incredibly expressive emotion and vibrant, rippling movement. da Vinci continuously studied how to portray emotions using body language and gestures, believing that “‘a picture of human figures ought to be done in such a way as that the viewer may easily recognize, by means of their attitudes, the intentions of their minds’” (Issacson p. 282). Through his intensive human studies and detailed portrayal of his figures’ emotions, he uses the Renaissance concepts of naturalism and humanism to pay homage to the complexity of the human form and mind. da Vinci’s choice to not include any gold halos or gold background also helps focus on the human forms of the figures through its removal of anagogic space.

Finally, da Vinci incorporated the revolutionary concept of involving the viewer in the painting by adjusting the lighting in the painting – the light appears to come from an actual window high on the left wall of the refectory, which blends reality and imagination and involves the viewer in the painting.

               While da Vinci used many of these new and complex techniques, he also referenced past versions of The Last Supper through his decision to put all of the figures on the back side of the table. He was certainly capable of painting people on both sides of the table, but putting them all on one side maintains this tradition and does not shock viewers with its boldness. At the same time as he is referencing the past, he incorporates new ideas as the figure placement also allows the viewer to clearly see Jesus and each disciple’s face, body, and movements, emphasizing their emotions as da Vinci wanted and adding to the effect of the viewer being included in the painting.

Sources:

Leonardo da Vinci's Last Supper. (June 21, 2012). Retrieved from http://www.italianrenaissance.org/a-closer-look-leonardo-da-vincis-last-supper/

Issacson, W. (2017). The Last Supper. In Issacson, W, Leonardo da Vinci. (pp. 273-292). New York, NY: Simon & Schuster

Image Sources:

Bando, K. (2016). Digital Reconstruction of The Last Supper. [Image]. Retrieved from http://www.leonardoresearch.com/The%20Last%20Supper.html

The Last Supper Perspective (n.d.) Retrieved from https://www.leonardodavinci.net/the-last-supper.jsp#prettyPhoto

Colleoni Equestrian Statue Monument Inauguration

After being chosen as the winner of the Colleoni equestrian statue monument, Verrocchio spent five years working on the statue until he died in 1488. By this time, Da Vinci no longer lived in Venice, as he had moved to Milan in 1482 to work for Lodocivo Sforza, the Duke of Milan. As such, the state of Venice handed off the Colleoni monument project to Da Vinci's competitor, Alessandro Leopardi, who was a sculptor and architect (Kulenovic and von Platten). Using Verrocchio and Da Vinci's initial designs as well as his own, Leopardi finished the monument and placed his name on the statue base. Finally, the Colleoni equestrian statue monument was inaugurated in 1496 and still stands, as a feat of art and engineering, in front of the San Giovanni e Paolo church today.

Pacioli's First Publication

In 1494 Luca Pacioli (a Franciscan monk and geometer) traveled to Venice to publish Summa de arithmetica, geometria, proportioni et proportionalita, which had the goal of being a comprehensive summary of mathematical knowledge at the time. Almost none of the mathematics featured was Pacioli’s original work, but he did give credit to those who produced the results he mentioned, which included thinkers like Euclid, Boethius, Sacrobosco, and Fibonacci . It had a completely summary of Euclid’s Elements and it studied games of chance (Pacioli presented an attempt at a solution to a problem in this subject which was later deemed incorrect). A revolutionary aspect of this text is that it was published in Italian (the vernacular), not Latin.  The publishing of this work also established Pacioli’s name in the academic and intellectual communities at the time, most definitely catching the attention of da Vinci (who bought a copy as soon as it was published). It is reasonable to speculate that da Vinci recruited Pacioli to the Milan court because he was so impressed by this work.

Sources

Isaacson, Walter. Leonardo Da Vinci. Simon & Schuster Paperbacks, 2018.

“Luca Pacioli.” Luca Pacioli (1445-1517), School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St. Andrews, Scotland, www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/Biographies/Pacioli.html.

The image source is Wikimedia Commons, and it is in the public domain in the United States because it was published (or registered with the U.S. Copyright Office) before January 1, 1924.

Da Vinci Completes Sforza Monument Clay Model

Da Vinci's initial works contained too abstract ideas and could not be cast into bronze with a single pour, retendering them incompletable. In his first two main designs, he had a horse rearing up over a fallen foe (Hanson, 2012). Although the fallen foe aided with the stability of the horse, it prohibited a single pour casting. His third design significantly differed from the other two, as it did not contain the fallen foe and was in a frozen trot with two suspended legs (Hanson, 2012). By 1490, Da Vinci began more intense work on the monument and completed a 24-foot clay model of a more detailed version of his third design by 1493, which sat in the Cortile Vecchio of the Castello at Milan (Grierson, 1959). Before Da Vinci’s attempt with his clay horse, no one had created such an equestrian statue with two suspended legs. One suspended leg, as in the Colleoni monument, poses a great challenge with stabilizing the center of gravity; having two suspended legs further heightens this challenge. 

To account for the instability of the statue with two airborne legs and to protect it against several environmental factors, Da Vinci had an intricate structure of the horse. He designed the inside of the horse to have a steel “skeletal structure,” essentially trusses within the horse, and thick metal walls (Ahl, 1995, p. 136). Even though such framing led to other problems, it miraculously maintains the structure of the horse. Such a comprehensive design stands as a feat for the 1400s and 1500s. 

Ahl, D. (1995). Leonardo da Vinci's Sforza monument horse: The art and the engineering. Bethlehem [Pa.]: London; Cranbury, NJ: Lehigh University Press; Associated University Presses.

Grierson, P. (1959). ERCOLE D'ESTE AND LEONARDO DA VINCI'S EQUESTRIAN STATUE OF FRANCESCO SFORZA. Italian Studies, 14(1), 40-48.

Hanson, E. J. (2012). Inventing the sculptor: Leonardo da Vinci and the persistence of myth (Doctoral dissertation, Washington University) [Abstract]. All Theses and Dissertations (ETDs),765. doi: https://doi.org/10.7936/K7PN93MQ

Da Vinci Sketches the Viola Organista

Preserved notebooks and sections of the Codex Atlanticus provide various sketches of da Vinci’s concept for a keyboard that can imitate a bowed string instrument. As there were various iterations of the design, the instrument evolves over time. Originally utilizing a mechanized bow, the sketches evolved to include a foot-pedal that controlled wheels to play the strings and ended with a system that would lower individual strings onto an automatic belt in order to make sound. In all, six pages across various manuscripts would be dedicated to the instrument, although none contained enough detail for craftsmen to build a working model from the drawings alone.

The Organista would never be made by da Vinci, as many of these drawings are incomplete. An early sketch of the instrument that utilized a mechanized bow did not show how that bow would be affixed to the instrument. Some drawings included double strings attached to each key (as opposed to the typical one per key), likely to increase the volume of the instrument. Ultimately, da Vinci’s drawings were rather difficult to decipher when attempting to envision a singular model of the device.

Raccolta Vinciana. (n.d.). Retrieved May 14, 2019, from https://bibdig.museogalileo.it/Teca/PDFProvider?pdf=/./000/000/337/33723...

Da Vinci, L. (2011, March 16). Viola organista [Digital image]. Retrieved from https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Viola_organista.jpg

Confalonieri prints the first copies of Theophrastus's Historia plantarum

Theophrastus (371 - 287 BC) was a student of Aristotle and is attributed with the title as the father of botany. Theophrastus wrote books on botany such Enquiry into Plants and On the Causes of Plants. In these books, he worked to categorize plants into the groups, study their uses and how to grow them and took note on the anatomy of plants. Based on Theophrastus work we can see how early botanical study revolved around the idea of the usefulness of the plant and trying to create basic distinctions between different plant types. Bartolomeo Confalonieri was the first to print Theophrastus's books in 1483 while in Treviso which allowed much of Europe to learn about his findings. Though it is not known for sure, Theophrastus writing would have been available prior to Leonardo's observations of plants and could have been read by the artist.

Leonardo da Vinci sketches the parachute

While da Vinci is known for designing a simple helicopter, he also made a sketch for a flotation device, better known today as a parachute. He stated "if a man has a tent made of linen of which the apertures [openings] have all been stopped up, and it be twelve braccia [about 23 feet] across and twelve in depth, he will be able to throw himself down from any great height without suffering any injury." The design consisted of sealed linen cloth around the sides of a pyramid with a square base. It differed from modern parachute designs, as these are typically rounded and include a harness. The notebook in which this sketch was included was dated 1483. Like many of his designs, it was likely never tested during his lifetime.

Source and Image Source:
Leonardo Da Vinci's Life. (n.d.). Retrieved May 11, 2019, from http://www.davincilife.com/davincis-parachute.html

Leonardo da Vinci’s Catapult

Schematics of Leonardo da Vinci's Catapult

Within the time of the Renaissance, significant revolutionary developments in the applications, properties, and laws of universal sciences were sought and attempted to be explained.  As such, in specifically analyzing the mechanical properties of systems and the universal laws of motion, leading Renaissance man, Leonardo da Vinci, sought to investigate his fascination with motion by exploring the principle functionalities and fundamental qualities of moving apparatuses.  Believing that both machines and humans were systems designated to move, da Vinci experimentally evaluated physical phenomena and visually depicted his theoretical models within his prized and unpublished, Codex Atlanticus, the principal manuscript collections that pertain to his designed machines and mechanisms.  Within his investigations of motion, he was noted for investigating the frictional and angular properties of what Aristotle had once coined as “simple machines,” such as inclined planes, levers, screws, pulleys, axels, and wheels, but was notably distinct in further attempting to improve complex machines with his new understandings of the principles of motion.  By essentially deriving and comprehending Newton’s First Law of motion, with his exception being his ignorance regarding the properties of gravity, da Vinci was able to utilize his preliminary knowledge of torque, tension forces, and angular motion to reimagine and theoretically explore an improved and ideal catapult design. 

By the Renaissance era, catapults had already established themselves as one of the most valued weapons of the Eastern Hemisphere, and although gunpowder had become a new staple of warfare mechanics, da Vinci understood that this new substance was not completely reliable during his time and led him to attempt to innovatively explore his studies of motion while proposing innovative and improved designs for the previously created catapult.  Thus, after settling in Milan and working as a Renaissance defense contractor under his patron, Il Moro, da Vinci worked diligently in drafting mechanical military and designs that explored his idealized properties of complex technical processes, which included the catapult.  Da Vinci is known to have developed two designs, the single and double arm system, for his ideal catapult, each of which utilized what is referred to as the leaf-spring system to optimize the weapon’s accuracy and power.  Da Vinci’s new designs distinguishably improved the preceding catapults by incorporating a rotating drum rather than a bow and draw-string.  Regarding the motion of the launch arm, the systems were said to have increased rotational velocity and an optimization of angular momentum using bending leaf spring sections which would provide an overexerted physical force upon the release of the systems activation mechanism.  Arguably the most imperative aspect to the functionality of da Vinci’s catapult is the leaf spring system which is a pliable, flexible beam constructed though the layered stacking of sheets of metal or laminated wood.  When constructing these leaf springs, it is imperative that, as the layers are stacked, their length decreases linearly to improve the density of material in the beam’s center, making the edges of the leaf spring more flexible.  With this design, when assembled, the leaf spring apparatus can achieve greater curvature and thus more effective propellant power.

The primary distinction between the single and the double arm catapult designs is the incorporation of pawl and rachet system and worm gear system.  In analyzing the single arm catapult, the weapon’s pawl and rachet system would secure the launch arm to its lowered position by situating grooves of a flywheel to the arm’s tines while bending the singular leaf spring.  This was imperative in avoiding accidental ejections and unwanted injuries common with previously developed catapults.  Furthermore, the double arm system would use a winding, worm gear system that would rely on two leaf springs to create torsion tension while gradually positioning the throwing arm to a lowered position.  The use of two leaf arms unfolding outwards had the cumulative effect of distributing immense and significant power to the launch arm thereby applying a large centrifugal acceleration to the projectile relative to the rotating launch arm. 

With this illustrative depiction of utilizing rotational motion to optimize the launching mechanisms of the familiar catapult, da Vinci was said to have created the most effective and mechanically efficient catapult ever invented.  This system, if scaled correctly, was projected to fire objects to a range of approximately one quarter mile.  However, the design contained a plethora of disadvantages that prevented its ultimate creation.  For example, the construction of steel leaf springs would have been extremely cost inefficient due to the expensive nature of acquiring multiple steel plates less than a millimeter thick, mortars were simultaneously developed by da Vinci which created a greater force of impact to enemy armies and were more cost-effective, and the extreme velocity applied by the contorting leaf springs would have eventually decreased the structural rigidity of these springs and resulted in an eventual snapping that could have resulted in catapult operators’ deaths or significant injuries.  Nevertheless, da Vinci’s catapult continues to represent the culmination of his infatuation with investigating the physical properties of perpetual motion devices.

Sources:

Catapult Model: Leonardo da Vinci’s Catapult Model. (n.d.). Retrieved May 6, 2019, from http://www.leonardodavincisinventions.com/leonardo-da-vinci-models/leona...

Hucbald, H. (2007, April 14). A Leonardo da Vinci Leaf Spring Catapult. Retrieved May 6, 2019, from http://www.hucbald.ramst.ca/articles/leonardo_catapult.html

Isaacson, W. (2018). Leonardo Da Vinci. New York: Simon & Schuster Paperbacks.

Leonardo Da Vinci's Life: Da Vinci’s Catapult. (n.d.). Retrieved May 6, 2019, from https://www.davincilife.com/catapult.html

Moon, F. C. (2016). Machines of Leonardo Da Vinci and Franz Reuleaux: Kinematics of Machines from the Renaissance to the 20th century. Place of publication not identified: SPRINGER.

Da Vinci contributes to Colleoni monument in Verrocchio's workshop

Leonardo Da Vinci heavily contributed to Verrocchio's Colleoni equestrian statue monument from both an artistic and structural engineering standpoint. Artistically, his anatomical studies of horses and his notebook entries of the horse's frame by frame movements impacted the Colleoni monument design (Kulenovic and von Platen). In particular, his sketches of the horse's suspended leg and warrior's face are reflected in the monument design. His engineering principles relating to structural stability of the horse with only three ground points are seen through his splitting of the horse into two parts, his idea of removing the inner structure and casting each individual piece into bronze, and the running of a tension bean through the two parts of the horse from the tail to the front of the harness to hold it together (Kulenovic and von Platen). By saving bronze, he saved money and decreased the weight of the horse, which improved stability. The Colleoni monument served as one of the first representations of Da Vinci's ability to combine art and engineering principles.

Sources:

Kulenovic, R., & Von Platen, F. (n.d.). Questions Concerning the Equestrian Statue in Remembrance of the Condottiere Bartolemeo Colleoni in Venice Created in the Workshop of Andrea Del Verrocchio. Retrieved from http://www.museumldv.com/venice.htm

Verrocchio gives up the brush

  In recent times, X-rays have been done on the painting 'The Baptism of Christ' that reveal a completely different outline for the angel that DaVinci painted. This indicates DaVinci followed his own vision rather than his master's from very early on in his career (he was only in his early 20's at this time). Often times people say Davinci's angel stands out from the rest of the painting for it is significantly better, as it is far more realistic and detailed. After seeing DaVinci's detailed and far superior angel in their painting "The Baptism of Christ", Verrocchio became embarrassed and ashamed that his pupil was a better artist than him. It is said that after realizing this he vowed, out of shame, to give up painting for the rest of his life. This rang true, as "The Baptism of Christ" is Verrocchio's last known painting. He continued work as an artist but focused on drawing and sculptures. After this time Verrocchio completed some of his best works such as "The Doubting Thomas" located outside the OrsanMichele in Florence or the "Equestrian statue of Bartolomeo Colleoni" in Venice, Italy.

Sources:  http://www.leonardo-da-vinci.net/baptism-of-christ/

Image was found on Wikipedia https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b2/Christ_with_St._Thomas_the_Apostle_of_India.jpg

The First Work: "La Valle dell'Arno"

La Valle Dell'Arno

The first of his drawings, Da Vinci sketched "La Valle dell'Arno" when he was 21. It is one of the first pieces to show a landscape without any religious symbols or human. With the Renaissance occurring at this time, it only goes to show how daring Da Vinci was in terms of separating the church from the artistic and scientific aspects of life. Instead, viewers see an approximately to scale scene of the Arno Valley and without any elements beings completely distorted to show how God may see the world. This was an essential development as maps at this time were influenced by artists' views and Da Vinci showed that not everything needed to have a relation to God or the church. Additionally, it encouraged the idea that scale can be shown in an image with human viewers in mind, thus there should be a direct relationship between the actual landscape and that drawn.

Source: “Landscape Drawing for Santa Maria Della Neve - by Leonardo Da Vinci.” Leonardodavinci.net, www.leonardodavinci.net/landscape-drawing-for-santa-maria-della-neve.jsp.

Lorenzo de Medici

The Treaty of Lodi

Italy after the Treaty of Lodi

The Treaty of Lodi was the peace agreement between Milan, Naples, and Florence. It was signed in Lodi, Lombardy by Milan, Venice, and Florence. It ended the Wars in Lombardy.  The treaty established boundaries between Milanese and Venetian territories in northern Italy.  The balance of power was established and excluded the smaller states. A second agreement was signed August 30th in Venice. The purpose of this agreement was establishing principles of non-aggression.

The Treaty of Lodi was significant because it brought Milan and Naples into a definitive peace alliance with Florence. The treaty provided a new state system model and institutionalized a regional balance of power built on diplomacy.  However, the balance of power was disrupted in 1494 with the start of the Italian Wars.  

“Treaty of Lodi.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 24 Sept. 2018, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Lodi.

Leonardo da Vinci

Brunelleschi is Hired to Build the Dome

In 1418, Brunelleschi is hired to build the dome. The former cathedral ceiling was worn down and leaked often. Brunelleschi's vison for a dome top was a new concept and was not at first embraced because of the engineering challenges it engages. Eventually, however, his plan went through and he was able to begin construction on the dome.

The Construction of the Duomo begins

In 1296 the Florence Duomo began construction. Florentines desired a symbol to showcase the power and status of their city, and at this time there was no better way to do that than to create one of the largest and most immaculate cathedrals in the world. The duomo at its beginning had a Florentine Gothic style, until its reconstruction under Brunelleschi, when it transformed to more of a Renaissance style.

Source: Leonardo da Vinci in Florence: On the Lantern. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://erenow.net/biographies/leonardo-da-vinci-the-flights-of-the-mind...

The Quomodo Organistrum Construatur is Written

The earliest clear influence in the playing mechanism of the viola organista does not necessarily come from bowed instruments themselves. Rather, the hurdy-gurdy is a more concrete example of the method of sound generation that da Vinci was searching for. The hurdy-gurdy is an instrument similar to a violin, with a hand crank to vibrate the strings and keys to signify specific notes. While the instrument was depicted in various forms throughout the 12^th century, the first manuscript detailing how to divide the tuning into a diatonic scale was released in the 13^th century, titled the Quomodo Organistrum Construatur. The author of this piece is debated, as the person it is often attributed to, Odo of Cluny, died centuries before the volume was completed. Separate instruments including various combinations of wheel-cranks and keys were combined and refined in this document. These instruments were likely used for newly written polyphonic music in Catholic monasteries, including ones in Italy. One string was typically designated for drones, allowing for much easier creation of polyphonic parts, as the player did not need to actively play the string separately because of the unified hand-crank.

Severini, G. (2018, December 17). Organistrum / Symphonia keyboard in Santiago de Compostela cathedral. Retrieved from https://liuteriaseverini.it/index.php?Itemid=1014&id=42:inquiry-into-a-t...

Hurdy-gurdy (Medieval). (n.d.). Retrieved May 14, 2019, from https://caslabs.case.edu/medren/medieval-instruments/hurdy-gurdy-medieval/

Hurdy-Gurdy [Digital image]. (2005, February 17). Retrieved from https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plik:Hurdy-Gurdy.jpg

The Last Supper

The subject matter of Leonardo da Vinci’s Last Supper is a major event recorded in the Bible during the life of Jesus Christ - the last meal that Jesus had with his disciples prior to his arrest and crucifixion, where he predicts aloud that one of his disciples will betray him. The after effects and shock from this statement is the moment that is portrayed in da Vinci’s painting. The biblical Last Supper also begins the tradition of the Eucharist, the ritual of consuming bread and wine as Jesus’ body and blood, which still occurs during Christian Mass every Sunday. There is debate about the specific date on which the Last Supper occurred, but new research points to April of AD 33, and the traditional location in which it would have taken place is Mount Zion, in Jerusalem.

As the event of the Last Supper is so important to Christianity, it was painted over and over throughout multiple different art paradigms, as even well into the Renaissance the vast majority of art depicted religious events. With such a popular topic, it only makes sense for da Vinci to have painted it as well.

Sources:

McKenny, L. (April 17, 2011). New theory on date of Last Supper. Retrieved from https://www.smh.com.au/world/new-theory-on-date-of-last-supper-20110416-...

Lipnick, J. (September 7, 2016). Where Did Jesus Eat The Last Supper? Retrieved from https://blog.israelbiblicalstudies.com/holy-land-studies/where-did-jesus...

The Baptism of Jesus

Baptism of Jesus

Along the River Jordan in Palestine, Jesus was baptized by St. John the Baptist. Baptism is the first Christian Sacrament and is the pouring of water over one’s head. Baptism cleanses the receivers of their sins, including Original sin, and the welcomes them into the Christian Church. The Baptism of Jesus is the first Baptism mentioned in the Bible, thus instilling the sacrament, and giving Christian’s an example that is still followed today. Jesus' Baptism is also the first time the Trinity (The Father, The Son and The Holy Spirit) is seen all together in the Bible. All three persons of God were present at the Baptism, showcasing the significance of the event. As Jesus was baptized the heavens opened up, a dove (the Holy Spirit) came down and rested on Jesus, and the Father's voice was heard from the Heavens. 

Source: https://www.compellingtruth.org/Jesus-baptized.html

Image retrieved from WikiMedia Commons: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Baptism_of_Christ_Baptistery_Florence_copy.jpg

Early Civilizations Introduce Concept of Structural Reciprocity

Structural reciprocity is a design concept in which different load-bearing elements in a design support each other along the length of the element, allowing for an even distribution of weight across the structure rather than strictly at the ends. Early civilizations demonstrated knowledge of this concept through their homes, even if they had not formally named it yet. For instance, Neolithic civilizations constructed pit dwellings built of structurally reciprocal elements as early as 10,000 to 4,500 BCE. Additionally, Eskimo tents and and teepees constructed by Native Americans also used structural reciprocity in their design. During the reign of Julius Caesar, this concept was translated to infrastructure through the construction of a bridge that spanned the Rhine River composed of interlocking wood. The ancient Chinese also used structural reciprocity by weaving baskets with interwoven bamboo strips and constructing interwoven circular roofs in Buddhist temples.

Sources:

Pugnale, A., & Sassone, M. (2014). Structural Reciprocity: Critical Overview and Promising Research/Design Issues. Nexus Network Journal, 16(1), 9-35. Retrieved May 16, 2019, from https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00004-014-0174-z

[Portrait of Gauis Iulius Caesar. Marble, augustan age, Roma, Musei Vaticani, Museo Pio Clementino, Galleria dei Busti]. (n.d.). Retrieved May 16, 2019, from https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Gaius_Iulius_Caesar_Vatican.jpeg

The image, taken from Wikimedia Commons, is in the public domain.

Archytas Creates the Flying Pigeon

Archytas, a Greek philosopher who lived between 428 BC and 347 BC, is believed to be one of the first people to investigate the idea of flight. He created a steam-powered flying pigeon sometime during his lifetime; however, the exact timing of this invention is unknown. The naming of this device came from the fact that it resembled the shape of a pigeon: wings on either side and a pointed front like a beak. The pigeon contained an opening at its rear which was connected to a heated boiler. The steam produced by the heated water caused an increase in pressure that produced the force required to eject the pigeon, which was reported to fly for several hundred meters.

Source (text and image):

Reese, M. R. (2014). The steam-powered pigeon of Archytas—the flying machine of antiquity. Ancient Origins. Retreived from https://www.ancient-origins.net/ancient-technology/steam-powered-pigeon-archytas-flying-machine-antiquity-002179.