in the year 1000, under Doge Pietro II Orseolo, Dalmatia was finally in complete control of the Venetians after many years of battle, tribute-payment, and political maneuvering in response to Dalmatian pirates.  This marked the beginning of the Venetian empire. Image: the extent of the Kingdom of Dalmatia (blue), on a map of modern-day Croatia. This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution Share Alike 3.0 Unported license.

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by Dino Franco Felluga

Arab scholar from the medieval ages, Ibn al-Haytham (better known as Alhazen in the west), wrote his seven volume book on optics and other fields of study called the 'Book of Optics.' It disagreed with the then popular extra mission theory of vision, believed by Euclid, which stated that vision was a result of 'particles' leaving the eye and interacting with the object and refuted the theory by providing evidence and experiments to support its counterpart, the intromission theory. The translation of the book from Arabic to Latin is supposed to have laid the foundation for the invention and further development of eyeglasses in Italy in the later years. The image is from Wikimedia Commons and is available for public use.  

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by Sahil Lala

A commoner named Pi Sheng is credited with the invention of the first blocks of movable type in China during the Ch'ing-li period . Each Chinese character was carved onto a small block of moistened clay and then baked to preserve the characters. To print pages, all the characters (all of which required several pieces of type to form) were arranged on an iron plate with a band around the plate to keep the type pieces in place. This image is sourced from Wikimedia Commons and is public domain.  

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by Laura Titzer

The Arsenal of Venice, known in Italian as Arsenale di Venezia is a naval shipyard that was the lifeforce of Venice's large merchant navy.  Its exact date of orgin is unknown, but the beginning of its life started in the time period from 1150-1200.  In 1220 the first two rows of covered water areas called squeri were constructed around the dock of San Marco.  At this time in the 13th century, The Arsenal of Venice was called Arsenale Vecchio, or Old Arsenal.  The goal of The Arsenal of Venice was to give greater production to the construction of naval vessels, and was proven very essential to the Venetian Empire's success in the Mediterranean, as the bulk of its galleys and large ships were produced there.  The Arsenal of Venice is known as one of the most effiecent examples of large manpower production seen in the pre-industrial era. Source of text: The Arsenal of Venice. (n.d.). Retrieved February 06, 2017, from arsenalofvenice.weebly.com/ This picture is public domain because its copyright haas expired 100 years plus the author's age.  

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by Jacob Hussey

Medieval alchemist Magister Salernus from the city of Salerno in southern Italy develops an initial conception of the process for the fractional distillation of alcohol. This process features the separation of mixtures by their different boiling points. This process is initally used as a tool for wine distillation, but will go on to be a staple in industrial chemical processes. Image source: Public Domain, upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia…...

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by Ryan Gansemer

Third Crusade, led by Frederick I Barbarossa, Richard I (Lionheart of England), and Philip II of France. On June 1190, Frederick drowns. The crusade is not successful in its main goal of capturing Jerusalem. This failure led to the Fourth Crusade six years later. Image: Bust of Friedrich I., "Barbarossa", gilded bronze, ca. 1160 (image by Montecappio). This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported license.

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by Dino Franco Felluga

Fourth Crusade. The initial goal was the capture of Jerusalem but the invaders ended up instead invading Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine empire (now Istanbul). Constantinople was seized at the end of of the Fourth Crusade, largely thanks to the political maneuvering of Doge Enrico Dandolo. As a result of the crusade, Venice controls the entire Eastern Adriatic. Venice also buys Crete from Boniface of Montferrat, leader of the crusade, thus ensuring that Venice controls the trade route to Constantinople and Asia Minor. As its part of the looting of Constantinople, Venice brings back the four horses that stand over the entrance of St. Mark’s Basilica. Image: Conquest of Constantinople By The Crusaders In 1204 (15th-century miniature). This work is in the public domain in its country of origin and other countries and areas where the copyright term is the author's life plus 70 years or less.

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Istanbul

by Dino Franco Felluga

Venice extends its imperial power by holding sway over the Duchy of the Archipelago, which was created by Marco Sanudo in 1207 (including the Greek islands of the Cyclades, especially Naxos).

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Naxos, Greece

by Dino Franco Felluga

  A large factor in Venice's ascension to power in the Medieval Era was due to vast trade connections and agreements with civilizations in the east such as Persia, India, and China, also known as the Silk Road.  In 1221, Venice created a trade agreement with the Mongol Empire, the major Asian power of the time.  From the East, goods such as silk, cotton, spices, and feathers were brought over in exchange for European goods, such as grain, salt, and porcelain.  All of the Eastern goods were brought over through Venetian ports, making Venice a very wealthy and prosperous city.  Source: SILK ROAD Dialogue, Diversity & Development. (n.d.). Retrieved February 09, 2017, from en.unesco.org/silkroad/content….  This image is in the public domain because it came from the site www.demis.nl/home/pages/Galler… and was released by the copyright holder. Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this map since it is based on free of copyright images from: www.demis.nl.  

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by Jacob Hussey

Padova University played a significant role in the development of modern medicine. Where there had been a lack of interest in observation of the natural world due to the dichotomy established between the terrestrial and celestial world, body and soul. Writings of the physical world by Aristotle were rediscovered and interpretation given by the Moem Averroes (1126-1198), which renewed an interest in the natural world by proposing a compromise: it is possible for believers to overcome the contradiction between the Bible and scientific knowledge through double truth. In Bologna and Padova especially, the dissection of the human body emerged as a common practice from this renewed interest. The philosophical focus of studies in Padova created a positive space for anatomical studies to be conducted since Aristotle's writings had been rediscovered and a renewal of interest in the natural world was being cultivated. The first detailed anatomical textbooks and understanding of the human body came out of the studies being conducted at the University of Padova.

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by Hannah Mylin

The University of Padua was founded in 1222 and has a long tradition and great reputation in anatomic studies. The scientific freedom and political wisdom of the Serenissima Republic of Venice, as well as the flourishing trade and cultural, social, and political life of Venice in the latter half of the 15th century attracted many scientists and students from around Europe to Padua. These scientists and students then contributed to the establishment of Padua as an international center for culture and science. Venice allowed the use of cadavers for anatomical dissection and anatomists at Padua did their own dissections, which was a radical way of teaching at the time, but both contributed immensely to the advancement of anatomy.   Sources: academic.oup.com/eurheartj/art… & www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15… Image: Wikimedia Commons (public domain)

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by Kate Harris

Fondaco dei Turchi was first constructed in 1225 by Giacomo Palmieri and is considered one of the oldest buildings in Venice. The Venetian government took over this palace in 1831 and used it for the Duke of Ferrara, Nicholas II. The space was used for political purposes and then was turned into an Ottoman warehouse in 1621. After a period of disarray, it was resotred in 1858 by Camillo Boito. This information comes from www.venicexplorer.net. This photo is from Wikimedia Commons and is free to share.

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by Nathaniel Gollmer

Taddeo Alderotti, a professor of medicine at the University of Bologna, is credited with developing the fractional distillation, giving him a high reputation both then and now. At the time, this process was mostly used for the distillation of fermented products with high alcohol content, such as wine, but today this process is used in the oil and gas industry and in the chemical synthesis industry. Image Source: Public Domain, upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia…...

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by Ryan Gansemer

The florin (Italian coin) was created in 1252 and replaced the much less valuable silver coins that dated back to the days of Charlemagne. The florin was unique because it was the first gold coin of Europe struck in sufficient quantities to actually play a significant commercial role since the 7th century. The florin quickly became the dominant trade coin in Western Europe because of the fact that many Florentine banks were international entities that had branches all across Europe. The widespread impact of the florin is seen by the fact that in the 14th century, over 100 European states and their coin-issuing authorities made their own copies of the florin. 

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by Mara Kossoff

Wars with Genoa. This is the time period when the two great thalassocracies of the period compete for control of the Mediterranean and of trade routes to the East. The first two Genoese Wars (1255-1270, 1294-9) produced naval victories for each side in an almost random pattern. On balance, the first war favored the Venetians and the second the Genoese. Fifty years of relative peace ensued, the belligerants heavily occupied by other challenges, including awesome onslaughts of plague. The Third Genoese War (1351-5) began well for the Venetians but ended badly. Control of the Genoa government, however, had passed to the Visconti family of Milan, and Venice was able to negotiate a better peace treaty than its military posture would have suggested. From one point of view the Fourth Genoese War (1378-81), called the War of Chioggia, can be viewed as a defeat for the Venetians, but Venice's dramatic and climactic victory at Chioggia, 1379-80, pulled defeat from the jaws of complete disaster. (See a Virtual History of Venice for more.) Image: The Lion of Saint Mark (By Tonchino - Extracted from Flag of Most Serene Republic of Venice.svg, Public Domain).

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by Dino Franco Felluga

In 1266, Marco Polo’s father and uncle meet Kublai Khan in Dadu (present day Beijing, China). Kublai Khan asks them to deliver a letter to the Pope and requests that they return with 100 Christians acquainted with the Seven Arts (grammar, rhetoric, logic, geometry, arithmetic, music and astronomy) plus oil of the lamp in Jerusalem. In 1271, Marco Polo embarks with his father and uncle to visit Kublai Khan, finally arriving there around 1275 delivering the sacred oil from Jerusalem and letters from the Pope. Image: Marco Polo in Tartar costume (18th century; image by Grevembrock - Scanné de Coureurs des mers, Poivre d'Arvor., Public Domain).

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Beijing

by Dino Franco Felluga

Giotto di Bondone was an Italian painter and architect from Florence, Italy. Giotto's masterwork is the decoration of the Scrovegni Chapel in Padua, also known as the Arena Chapel, completed around 1305. Image: Possible image of Giotto: detail of decoration in the Peruzzi Chapel, Church of Santa Croce, Florence, Italy. This detail has been digitally restored. This work is in the public domain in its country of origin and other countries and areas where the copyright term is the author's life plus 100 years or less.

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by Dino Franco Felluga

The first pair of eyeglasses is invented in Italy. The earliest eyeglasses design was often balanced on the nose or held in front of eyes. The design used principles from Alhazen's Book of Optics, after its translation from Arabic into Latin in the 12th century. Within two decades of their invention, Venice had created guild regulations for the creation and sale of eyeglasses in order to manage the product. Eyeglasses instantly popular, and became more popular after the invention of the printing press in 1452. Image is the "The Glasses of Apostle" by Conrad von Soest and is from Wikimedia.

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by Catriona White

Venetians realized the value of their glassmakers, who were forced to be isolated on the Murano Islands in 1291 to prevent fire hazards from destroying Venetian neighborhoods and to reduce communication with other people. By the end of 1200s, glassmakers were not allowed to emigrate from the island so that their highly-sought-after talents could not bring fame and fortune to another region. In return, glassmakers were bestowed with "burgher" status--a much higher class than any other tradesman. The photo is from Google Maps, which has Copyright over the map data, but the users may "publicly display Content with proper attribution online, in video, and in print." Source: How Glass Changed the World by Rasmussen

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by Barbara McAnulty

In 1297, establishment of Venice’s republican regime. In the act known as the Serrata (Closing of the Great Council), membership in the city’s ruling class was limited to a select set of nearly two hundred families. Image: Chamber of the Great Council (picture by Sailko and distributed under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License.

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by Dino Franco Felluga

  The Doge's Palace was built upon the site of an old fort after the Venice hierarchy decided to build a new palace. It was designed by Filippo Calendario in Venetian Gothic style. There were two phases to its construction- the eastern wing, which was built between 1301-1340, and the western wing, which took 110 years to build. This was due to designer Filippo Calendario's execution in 1355, which hindered progress on the western wing. The photo is by MarkusMark (Own work) [CC BY-SA 3.0 (creativecommons.org/licenses/b…)], via Wikimedia Commons. It is free to copy and redistribute.

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by Teresa Ortyl

In a sermon delivered by the Dominican friar Giordano da Pisa, in the church of Santa Maria Novella of Florence, he celebrated the genius of mankind by stating that (translated),  "It is not yet twenty years since there was found the art of making eyeglasses, which make for good vision... And it is so short a time that this new art, never before extant, was discovered. ... I saw the one who first discovered and practiced it, and I talked to him." This preaching was of significant importance as it highlights the fact that the art of making eyeglasses was a gradual process and had existed for a while, but this knowledge had not been widely distributed for a long time. The image is from Wikimedia Commons and is available for public use.  

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by Sahil Lala

On 10 July 1310, creation of the Council of Ten in response to the revolt against the Doge led by Bajamonte Tiepolo.  The Council of Ten was composed of ten members elected to a one-year term by the Great Council. Members could not be elected for two successive terms. Image: The death of Doge Marin Faliero by Francesco Hayez.  This work is in the public domain in its country of origin and other countries and areas where the copyright term is the author's life plus 100 years or less.

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by Dino Franco Felluga

With records dating back to 1312, the Chapel Royal is a group of singers that are appointed to sing for the country's reigning sovereign.  They would travel wherever the monarch was living at the time, and was originally created for religious, or spiritual purposes.  It is said that the chapel acheived its greatest height during the reign of Elizabeth I because of William Byrd and Thomas Tallis both being members.  Eventually, the name came to encompass the building that they used.  It is still used today. Image source: Wikipedia

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by Justin Chan

In 1320, the “Nuovo Arsenale” was added on to the Arsenal of Venice.  The Nuovo Arsenale digresses from the Byzantine design of the former “Arsenale Vecchio” as well as provides much more room for producing and maintaining the growing merchant and militant navy.  The Nuovo Arsenale helped the Venetian Empire build more ships at a faster pace than before.  This picture is okay to use because this file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license.  Source: www.aviewoncities.com/venice/a…. 

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by Jacob Hussey

Life of Guisto de’ Menabuoi, an Italian painter of the early Renaissance: c. 1320-1391. Image: Detail of Paradise, Dome of the Padua Baptistry, by Giusto de' Menabuoi (Web Gallery of Art, public domain).

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by Dino Franco Felluga

The Della Scala family, the rulers of Verona, capture Padua and Treviso, thus bringing the Della Scala empire to the shores of Venice itself, forcing Venice to attack in October 1336, leading to the capture of Padua and a military alliance with Milan, Manua, Este and Florence. The resulting peace treaty with the Della Scala family also gave Venice Treviso. Venice placed her new mainland territories under the rule of the Carreras of Padua who helped Venice defeat the Della Scala family; however, the Carreras then sought to get out from under Venetian control.

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by Dino Franco Felluga

The Bubonic Plague began is said to have began in 1347. As medicine was not advanced, over 25 million people died. Although the bubonic plague is found mostly in small rodents and is transmitted to humans through fleas. Once caught, the plague is very contagious and killed quickly. Symptoms include fever, chills, weakness, and headache. This information is from the CDC and www.themiddleages.net. This photo is from Wikimedia Commons and is free to share.

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by Nathaniel Gollmer

The Black Death devastated Venice in 1348, reducing its population by one half. Plague occurred in Venice 22 times between 1361 and 1528. Image: The Dance of Death by Michael Wolgemut (1493) from the German printed edition, folio CCLXI recto from Hartman Schedel's Chronicle of the World (Nuremberg, 1493) thought to be created by Michael Wolgemut (b. 1434, Nürnberg, d. 1519, Nürnberg). This work is in the public domain in its country of origin and other countries and areas where the copyright term is the author's life plus 100 years or less.

 

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by Dino Franco Felluga

  In order to validate Dominican intellect,  Tommaso da Modena was commissioned to paint a fresco cycle of 40 different Dominican scholars. This portrait of Saint Cher is one of the earliest depictions of a person using spectacles. The image is from Wikimedia Commons and is available for public use.  

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by Sahil Lala

In 1377, under the leadership of Pope Gregory XI, the Western Roman Church saw the return of the papacy to Rome. This transition marked a temporary end to the reign of the papacy in Avignon, where materialism and corruption had taken root, ostracizing many who practiced Western Christianity. After the death of Gregory XI, political tensions rose as the election of a Neapolitan pope (Urban VI) caused conflict that resulted in the election of a series of antipopes, who served as rival claimants to the papacy. Conflict among the leaders of the Church escalated rapidly, creating political divides that forced secular European leaders to align themselves with either the Roman or Avignonese papal claimant. Rivalries among Catholic factions throughout Western Europe preserved the Western Schism for several decades, until the Council of Constance resolved the conflict in 1418. (Image Source: Unknown [CC BY-SA 3.0 or GFDL], via Wikimedia Commons, commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.…)

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by Andrew Natoli

Fourth Genoese War (also termed the War of Chiogga).  The Carraras of Padua sided with the Genoans.  Despite being surrounded and near defeat, Venice managed to defeat the Genoese fleet at Chiogga. Exhausted by her wars, Venice elected to cede Treviso and her other mainland possessions to the Duke of Austria, whom she deemed to be less of a long-term threat than the Carraras. Venice retreats to her island fortress.

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by Dino Franco Felluga

Life of Donatello (Donato di Niccolò di Betto Bardi), an early Renaissance sculptor from Florence: c. 1386-1466. Image: Donatello's equestrian statue of Gattamelata at Padua, the first example of such a monument since ancient times (public domain).

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by Dino Franco Felluga

Venice sided with the Carraras again (along with Florence and Bologna) to oust Milan from Padua. Once the Carraras were back in power in Padua, they attacked Milan-controlled Vicenza. The Milanese arranged for Venice to attack Padua to stop the Carraran western advance. Venetians captured Padua in November 1404; they executed Francesco Carrara and his son Jacopo. Venetians now controled Padua, Vicenza and Verona, along with Treviso.

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Padua (Padova)

by Dino Franco Felluga

Life of Jacopo Bellini, father of Gentile and Giovanni Bellini and father-in-law of Andrea Mantegna. Image: Jacopo Bellini, Madonna and Child, c. 1465 (Los Angeles County Museum of Art). This file is in the public domain because it has been released by the Los Angeles County Museum of Art  with its "Public Domain High Resolution Image Available" mark.

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by Dino Franco Felluga

In the 15th and 16th centuries, there was a gradual movement from tempera paints to oil paints as the primary medium. Egg tempera paints dried quickly, had less color saturation, and had low transparency, whereas oil paints dried more slowly which made them easier to work with, had greater color saturation, and increased transparency. This shift in painting medium corresponded with the themes of humanism and realism in the Renaissance by allowing artists to represent their subjects more realistically than was possible with tempera paints. Source: itech.dickinson.edu/chemistry/… Image source: www.the-athenaeum.org/art/list… (public domain)

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by Kate Harris

 The Mongolians, led by Timur the Great, destroyed Damascus (in today's Syria) in 1400. At the time, Damascus was a rival city to Venice with regard to glass production. When the city's infrastructure was demolished, the glassmakers of Demascus, in order to continue their trade with the best tools, fled to Venice. The glass industry in Venice was already growing rapidly, but this influx of artists contributed to Venice's achieving its glass glory in the late 15th century. The photo of Timur the Great is Public Domain according to Wikipedia.

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by Barbara McAnulty

Cristallo is a clear, hard, malleable glass that revolutionized glass as it become popular technology in the 15th century. The photo is a glassmaker in Murano. According to Wikipedia, the picture is Public Domain. 

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by Barbara McAnulty

In 1414, the Council of Constance convened with the intention of resolving the Western Schism that arose amidst conflict surrounding the legitimacy of papal claimants from several defector territories. King Sigismund of Germany led deliberations of the council, and made a failed attempt to ensure the abdication of the three rival claimants. After Gregory XII sent delegates to Constance, whom he endowed with the power to preside over the council, King Sigismund yielded his presidency to the delegates, who then offered the resignation of Gregory XII to the papacy. This gesture by the Roman papal claimant paved the way for détente within Western Europe as the election of a single legitimate pope, Pope Martin V, meant that the papacy once again had roots firmly planted in Rome. (Image Source: Unknown [Public Domain], via Wikimedia Commons, commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.…)  

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by Andrew Natoli

Venice acquired Friuli from 1418-1420 as a result of tensions with the King of Hungary, who had gained control of Dalmatia. In 1420, the Venetians succeeded against the Patriarch of Aquileia, thus wresting control of Udine (and doubling her mainland territory). In the same year, Venice reasserted her control of Dalmatia.

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by Dino Franco Felluga

The wars in Lombardy were a series of struggles between the Republic of Venice and the Duchy of Milan, leading to the five major Italian territorial powers that make up the map of Italy until the Italian Wars (i.e., Venice, Milan, Florence, Naples, and the Papacy). The wars ravaged the economy of Lombardy and weakened the power of Venice. The Peace of Lodi in 1454 brought 40 years of comparative peace to Northern Italy. This is the time of the Medici rule of Florence, first Cosimo de’ Medici, then Piero “the Gouty,” then Lorenzo Il Magnifico.  The death of Lorenzo marked the end of the Golden Age of Renaissance Florence. Both Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo Buonarroti were active (and tied to Lorenzo) during this period. In 1428, Venice acquired Brescia and Bergamo as a result of this struggle.

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by Dino Franco Felluga

Joan of Arc's first major military victory was the Siege of Orleans that took place from 1428-1429. The Siege of Orleans was a very important event in history. The Siege of Orleans signaled a turning point in the Hundred Years' War between France and England. This was the first major French success after their defeat at Agincourt in 1415.

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by Mara Kossoff

Mauro Codussi was a famous Venetian Gothic architect who is famous for designing many churches and palaces. These works include the church of San Michele in Isola, the interior of the church of Santa Maria Formosa, and the staircase of San Giovanni Evangelista. Evidence suggests that he designed the structure of St. Mark's Clock Tower. For example, the decorations of the tower are less important to the Tower itself, which is a common trait for Codussi's works. This is an image of San Michele in Isola. Image by Paolo Monti [CC BY-SA 4.0 (creativecommons.org/licenses/b…)], via Wikimedia Commons

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by Mikaela Meyer

  Aldus Manutius was born in the papal state of Bassiano in 1449 and died on February 6, 1515. Manutius would found the Aldine Press in 1494 and establish a reputation as a printer, publisher, and typographer based in Venice. After his death in 1515, his brother – in – law and third son would continue to operate the press. This image was sourced from Wikimedia Commons and is public domain.

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by Laura Titzer

1) Johannes Gutenberg got the final design of the printing press working in 1450. His first project was printing indulgences that the Church used, In 1451 he used the printing press to produce copies of the Bible, resulting in the famous Gutenberg Bible. Success of the printing press came from increased literacy rates. His printing press was used throughout Europe in the following years. This information came from Oregon State. This photo is from Wikimedia Commons and is free to share.

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by Nathaniel Gollmer

  Leonardo da Vinci was born April 15, 1452 in Vinci, Italy. As a child he did not have any special formal education, but when he was a teenager his father recognized his artistic talent and arranged for him to be trained under the famous artist Andrea del Verrochio from Florence. From this apprenticeship he was introduced to many technical skills such as metal working, as well as improving his painting and sculpting techniques. Since he was a scientist, artist, and inventor among many other things, his knowledge of many disciplines gave him the title of a Renaissance Man. His most famous paintings are the Mona Lisa and The Last Supper, and he is also recognized for his study of human anatomy and his many inventions. He died at 67 in the year 1519. Image source: Wikimedia commons, listed as public domain in the United States because it is a photographic reproduction of a public domain work of art. 

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by Juliana Ilmain

  The fall of Constantinople in 1453 to the Ottoman Empire effectively ended the Middle Ages and signaled the beginnings of the Renaissance. Greek scholars fled the city with manuscripts and knowledge unheard of in the West. The fall of Constantinople also broke trade routes between Europe and Asia, which led to exploration for new routes to Asia and the “Age of Exploration.” This image is sourced from Wikimedia Commons and is public domain.  

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by Laura Titzer

The Gutenberg Bible was one of the first books to be printed and produced in Europe. The book was copied using a movable metal type and spurred the Gutenberg Revolution, also known as the age of print in the West. The bible was written in Latin, the vernacular of the Roman Catholic Church and was very beautiful. The pages were artfully made and the text was a gorgeous font. This was the first time that people other than the upper class and aristocrats could have access to the written word. People could purchase a bible to have in their own homes rather than skimming through one in a library. The orignals were rather expensive though, so it's beleived that most were sold to monasteries or universities. Image source: www.loc.gov/exhibits/bibles/th…

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by Caroline Brown

  In 1460, the Arsenal of Venice had its gate completed.  The gate is known as the Porta di Terra, and it was the first structure in Venice to use classical style architecture, moving away from the Gothic architecture that had dominated the city.  The Porta di Terra even includes statues of the Roman Pantheon, which is rather curious considering Christianity was the dominant religion in Venice at that moment in time. Later in 1572, a lion was added to the top to commerate the Venetian victory in the Battle of Lepanto.  Source: The Porta di Terra. (n.d.). Retrieved February 09, 2017, from arsenalofvenice.weebly.com/the…. This file is made available under the Creative Commons CC0 1.0 Universal Public Domain Dedication.  

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by Jacob Hussey

Lorenzo de Medici, the grandson of Cosimo de Medici, came to power in 1469. Lorenzo is thought of as the most powerful patron of the Medici family and is remembered as the greatest patron in the history of Italy. Some of the talent Lorenzo sponsored as a patron includes Michelangelo Buonarroti and Leonardo da Vinci, two of the most famous people in history. Under Lorenzo's rule, Florence earned its reputation as the most beautiful city in Europe. Additionally, the economy of Florence prospered like never before. 

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by Mara Kossoff

As Pope Sixtus IV (born Francesco della Rovere) began his papal reign, he made clear his intention to renew the crusade against the Ottoman Turks. Despite initial successes by Pope Sixtus IV in such religiously-motivated efforts as the military expeditions against the Turks in Smyrna, his attempts at evangelism in Turkic territory and at unification of the Church in Europe failed entirely. Thus, throughout the majority of his reign, Pope Sixtus IV invested in cultural and political ventures that would help to strengthen his position as Pope. He surrounded himself with relatives and friends, building on the prestige of his familial line through nepotistic practices, while involving himself in a number of scandalous practices. From endorsing his nephews’ plot to overthrow the Medici, to inciting Venetian aggression against the duchy of Ferrara, Pope Sixtus IV paved a path of corruption that would consume the reign of future popes. (Image Source: Melozzo da Forlì [Public Domain], via Wikimedia Commons, commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.…)  

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by Andrew Natoli

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mso-style-priority:99; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0in; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:Calibri; mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-latin; mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin;} By the time Copernicus was studying at the University of Padua (between 1501 and 1503) he had already made a series of observations and been highly influenced by books such as Epitoma in Almagestum Ptolemaei by Johann Müller and Disputationes adversus astrologianm divinatricenm by Giovanni Pico della Mirandola. These gave him the basis of challenging the status quo in his way of thinking, which would have played a critical role in enabling the mindset that led to his heliocentric hypothesis. Medicine was tied to astrology due to beliefs in the powers of the planets and a belief that they were able to affect the body and the way the body interacted with the world, so his hypotheses not only redefined the possibilities in space but also ideas concerning the human.

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by Hannah Mylin

The worlds' oldest surviving pair of glasses are located in the Daisenin Temple in Kyoto. They belonged to Yoshimasa Ashikaga, the eighth shogun of Muromachi shogunate. The glasses and the accompanying case are made from hand carved white ivory. The image and information is from openculture.com and is free for public use.  

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by Sahil Lala

Sebastiano Serlio was born Bologna on September 6, 1475. He was an Italian architect and thespian who focused designing theaters. Serlio is most known for his book on architructe, Tutte l’opere d’architettura, et prospetiva. He drew upon the Greek and Roman style of architecture for his designs. Most of his buildings have either been replaced by new buildings or were not considered influential enough to receive much recognition. After his work in Italy, Serlio went on to build palaces and chateaus in France, most notably the palace of Fontainebleau. He died in 1554. This information is from Britannica and Italian Renaissance Theatre. The photo is from Williams College Magazine in an article titled The Italian Job.

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by Nathaniel Gollmer

Trissino was a well known poet, most famous for his tragedy Sofonisba. This tragedy was renowned for its novelty, specifically its lack of religious connection and for its use of blank verse. Beyond this, he is credited for discovering Palladio when he was a stonemason. Palladio would enter his academy and was influenced greatly by Trissino. This information is taken from www.britannica.com/biography/G…. This image is taken from Wikimedia Commons and is public domain.

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by Tim Brunner

The revolving bridge designed by Leonardo da Vinci was intended for military use. It was thought of to be stable yet portable, so soldiers could transport it and use it again when they were crossing water. Its mechanics consister of pulleys and ropes, and the innovation was on wheels. Da Vinci believed that having mobility was one of the most important things in warfare, so this provided armies with the ability to move quickly and easily get away from the enemy. Image source: Leonardo da Vinci Inventions-Bridges www.pathfindersdesign.net/www.…

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by Juliana Ilmain

This catapult model was a design for an improved version of older models sketched by Leonardo da Vinci. His idea was intended to be a more powerful catapult that could be used in warfare. His invention allowed for the ammunition to be propelled at much faster speeds. This was done by the use of a leaf spring, which is a spring that could be more easiy bent and deformed so that it can store more energy and release with more power. Image source: Wikimedia Commons, Catapult from Leonardo da Vinci's "Codex Atlanticus", listed as public domain in the United States because it was published before January 1, 1923. 

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by Juliana Ilmain

Leonardo Da Vinci painted the Lady with an Ermine with specific scientific goals in mind. He was exploring the effects of light on a subject, and the lighting seen here is so precise that one can calculate the distance the light is placed from the subject in the painting. Only by understanding light could a true 3D representation be made on paper. Other works of the time played very little with depth, especially in representing the facial features of a human. These often appeared bland, with every contour equally visible and under the same color shade. Unlike these two-dimensional representations, the Lady with an Ermine is situated with her body at an angle and there are clear gradients of light across her face and chest. This attention to detail by observation of the natural world parallels the focus in medicine and other scientific fields (in which Da Vinci was directly involved)

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by Hannah Mylin

Leonardo da Vinci was not the first person to think of the idea of a parachute, but he designed one in his sketchbook. His invention was a pyramid shaped design that was held in shape by a wooden frame. The tent-like design was to be made out of linen and be as large as 23 meters in length. Da Vinci's intent for this invention was to allow people to be able to jump from great heights and land smoothly without injury. A skydiver in the year 2000 built a parachute designed by da Vinci based on the drawing and using materials that would have been available in the 15th century. The prototype was tested in flight and was successful. Image source: Wikimedia commons, listed as public domain in the United States because it is a photographic reproduction of a public domain work of art.

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by Juliana Ilmain

After a plague had struck Milan, Italy and killed much of the population, Leonardo da Vinci created a plan for a city that could prevent the massive spread of disease. His design for this "Ideal City" was to build it on two levels, the lower level for animals and tradesmen and the upper level would be people walking. There would be canals below to take away waste and garbage, streets would be wider, and overall there would be better living conditions. His intent was to make a city with improved sanitation and lower the chance for a diease spreading like it had, taking out a large portion of the population. Image source: Wikimedia Commons, listed as public domain in the United States because the copyright term has expired.

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by Juliana Ilmain

One of Leonardo da Vinci's many sketches in his notebooks was a flying machine. The design of this ornithopter, an aircraft powered by flapping wings, was inspired by the flight of bats and birds. It was designed that the pilot would lay down on their stomach and power the machine using levers, pedals and pulleys with their hands and feet to make the large wings flap. Scientists today know that the design would never have enough power to make it off the ground. The materials would be too heavy and the pilot would not be able to generate enough energy for a successful flight. Image source: Wikimedia Commons, Design for a flying machine, image labeled as public domain in the United States because it is a photographic reproduction of a public domain work of art.

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by Juliana Ilmain

Birth of Venus was painted in 1486 by Sandro Botticelli. This painting illustrates the Goddess of Venus emerging from the sea and arriving at the shore as a grown woman. It is thought that that Botticelli was commissioned to paint the Goddess of Venus by the Medici family. Today, the painting is in the collection of the Uffizi Gallery in Florence.  

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by Mara Kossoff

One of the many war machines created by Leonardo da Vinci was the giant crossbow. This huge weapon was designed to be very intimidating to the enemies. Typical crossbows that shoot arrows were a common war tool, but this giant version was meant to project much more destructive things such as boulders or bombs. The sketch of this invention was designed to be over 20 meters wide, sit on 6 wheels, and be made out of a flexible wood. The projectile could either be set off by soldiers pulling on the trigger or hammering it. Leonardo believed the enemies would be more intimidated and fearful of the size of the machine than the posssible physical damage. Image source: Wikimedia Commons, Giant Crossbow, image listed as public domain in the United States, it is a photographic reproduction of a public domain work of art.

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by Juliana Ilmain

  De hominis dignitate is a famous philosophical oration by Giovanni Pico della Mirandola and is translated "about the dignity of man." While Pico recognizes man's relation to the world around us, Pico emphasizes what is unique about humankind that separates us from our surroundings. Although Pico often references God and angels with adoration, he believes humans have an earthly vocation beyond devotion to God which is to pursue knowledge in many disciplines, especially liberal arts. Pico not only demonstrated his principles in this oration but also 900 theses, which he wrote while he was in his twenties (he urged others not to discredit his work because of his young age). A strong advocate for his discipline, Pico puts down those who philosophize for personal gain rather than for the sake of obtaining pure, universal truth. This image is from Wikipedia and is labeled Public Domain.

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by Barbara McAnulty

This war machine designed by Leonardo da Vinci was inspired by the shell of a turtle. This armoured car was to be made of wood covered in metal, and the top was slanted to deflect shots recieved from the enemy. There were cannons around the perimeter of the tank to fire at the enemy from all angles. It was designed to be able to travel in all directions, and be powered by soldiers inside. Scientists today see that there was an engineering flaw in his design, where the wheels would be going in the opposite directions, preventing the tank from advancing properly. It is questioned whether this was a true error, or da Vinci purposely did that to ensure people could not steal his work. Image source: Wikipedia commons, Leonardo da Vinci, design for a fighting vehicle. Image listed as public domain in the United States because it is a photographic reproduction of a public domain work of art.

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by Juliana Ilmain

In 1489, Venice began its control of the island of Cyprus located in the eastern Mediterranean.  Cyprus in addition to the other Greek Islands were very essential to Venice's large merchant and naval fleet as the islands were used for supply routes and strategic points.  The island of Cyprus added to Venice's wealth and power.  Also, the island of Cyprus provided Venice with goods of cotton, sugar, and salt.  Source: www.venicethefuture.com/schede… This work is in the public domain in its country of origin and other countries and areas where the copyright term is the author's life plus 70 years or less.  

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by Jacob Hussey

Vitruvian Man is a famous drawing done in ink that brings together the art of anatomy and mathematics. The artist Leonardo da Vinci made this based on the writings of Vitruvius, a Roman architect, author and engineer. His works described the exact measurements and proportions of the human body, which was applied to da Vinci's art. Two images of a man standing in a square and a circle are superimposed. The geometry of the art has every part of the body measured, with notes alongside from Vitruvius' work. This demonstrates his close attention to proportion and the blend between art and science. Image source: Wikimedia commons, Vitruvian Man. Listed as public domain in the United States because it is a photographic reproduction of a public domain work of art.

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by Juliana Ilmain

Tiziano Vecelli was born around 1490 and died in 1576 and was one of the most important artists in Venice, especially in the Venice school of art. He often went just by the name of Titian. In Padua in 1511, Titian’s true talent of fresco painting was shown and was later commissioned to finish many of the frescos in Venice that had been started by Giovanni Bellini. In 1521, Titian did the St. Sebastian figure. In 1528 he was actually fired by the government in Venice because they were unhappy with his work. In 1576, the plague killed Titan. This information is form www.titian-tizianovecellio.org. This photo is from Wikimedia Commons and is free to share.

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by Nathaniel Gollmer

Though corruption had long had its foothold in the Papacy, it was not until the reign of Rodrigo Borgia as Pope Alexander VI that the depths of corruption in the Church became readily apparent. Having served as a Cardinal at the Vatican for 30 years prior to his election (during which time the supposedly celibate clergyman had several mistresses and fathered at least four children), Borgia leveraged his political influence for his benefit. He worked to build on his family’s economic and political successes, resorting to bribing clergymen to achieve his ends and to marrying away his daughter Lucrezia several times in repeated attempts to forge beneficial alliances. Furthermore, he often used the Church’s wealth to feed his hedonistic desires, paying for plays, lavish banquets, and personal parties and masquerades with Church funds at the expense of social and evangelical reform. Such materialism and corruption in the Church led to sparked distrust and caused many believers to question not only the leadership of the Church, but also the value of prayer and of religion as a whole. (Image Source: Cristofano dell'Altissimo [Public Domain], via Wikimedia Commons, commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.…)  

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by Andrew Natoli

On October 12th, 1492, Christopher Columbus and his crew finally saw land, which they thought was India but was actually the Americas. They had been at sea for 10 weeks, so the sight of land was huge relief for the crew. This was critical event as it considered Europe’s most noteworthy interaction with people not located in Afro-Eurasia. This began the European idea of exploration of new lands for resources and eventually colonization. This information came from www.americaslibrary.gov. This photo is from Wikimedia Commons and is free to share.

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by Nathaniel Gollmer

Aldus Manutius established the Aldine Press in Venice in 1494. The press would go on to print numerous works of Classics, works in Greek and even volumes to assist scholars in the study and translation of Greek works. The Aldine Press can be credited for preserving many Greek and Latin works that would have otherwise been lost after the fall of Constantinople. It is estimated that the Aldine Press produced over 1,000 editions between 1495 and 1595.   This image is sourced from ilab.org. Eisenstein, E. (1982). The Printing Press as an Agent of Change. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

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by Laura Titzer

  The first book from the Aldine Press, the Erotemata of Constantine Lascaris, was printed and released in 1495. The Erotemata was also the first book to be printed entirely in Greek. This began the dynasty in Venice of the Aldine Press that began with its founder, Aldus Manutius. This image is a page from the Erotemata and is sourced from byu.edu.  

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by Laura Titzer

In 1495 Leonardo da Vinci designed a knight that was operated by pulleys and cables.  This robot-like machine, later referred to as Leonardo’s mechanical knight, was designed to independently sit, stand, raise its visor, and maneuver its arms.  The design is thought to be partially a result of da Vinci’s anatomic research. Image is a model of the mechanical knight design.  Photo by Erik Möller. Leonardo da Vinci. Mensch - Erfinder - Genie exhibit, Berlin 2005. - Own work, Public Domain, commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.…

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by Susannah Pritchett-Montavon

The Senate commissioned for the clock to be built in 1493 because the old clock of Sant'Alipio was deteriorating.  Zuan Carlo Rainieri was tasked with creating the clock. Planning was time-consuming, and construction did not begin until a few years later. Though the image is from another turret clock in Venice, it dates back to 1500, which makes it approximately the same age as the St. Mark's Clock Tower. Image By Didier Descouens (Own work) [CC BY-SA 4.0 (creativecommons.org/licenses/b…)], via Wikimedia Commons

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by Mikaela Meyer

This sculpture depicts Mary holding the body of Jesus Christ after the Crucifixion.  The work was commissioned by French Cardinal Jean de Bilheres.  It was meant to serve as the cardinal’s funeral monument, but was moved to St. Peter’s Basilica in Vatican City.  The sculpture was created by Renaissance artist Michelangelo Buonarroti at age 25.  It is the only piece Michelangelo ever signed.  He finished the piece in under two years.  The statue is six feet long and nearly as tall, sculpted out of Carrara marble.  This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution Share Alike 3.0 Uported License.

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by Kai Strubel

In an effort to escape the corruption of the world around him, Girolamo Savonarola—who was about 23 at the time—withdrew from society and enrolled in a Dominican monastery in Bologna, Italy. After a few years, he relocated to a convent in Florence, where, despite failure in initial attempts at preaching, he grew in popularity as a preacher who spoke openly and passionately about the nature of God’s wrath. He spoke out against the hedonistic tendencies of the clergy and the vanity of mankind, refusing to be silenced by the powerful Papal and political figures that threatened him. After having been summoned to Rome twice in 1495 by Pope Alexander VI, who demanded that Savonarola not speak out publicly in criticism of the corrupt Papacy, Savonarola refused to submit to authority of the Church and was excommunicated. He continued to attend Mass and to rebel against the corruption of the Church, sparking public outrage that resulted in his torture. Having confessed to crimes he had not committed, Savonarola was convicted falsely of heresy and was hanged on May 23, 1498. (Image Source: Anonymous [Public Domain], via Wikimedia Commons, commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.…)  

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by Andrew Natoli

In 1499, the Venetian Government wanted to ensure the clock could be consistently maintained. To do so, they made the decision to have a custodian, or a "temperatore," and his family live in the Clock Tower. The custodian was paid to keep the clock functioning properly. Custodians and their families lived in the Clock Tower until 1998. The last Clock custodian was Alberto Peratoner. The custodian and his family lived behind the clock's face; windows can be seen in the four corners of the clock's face as Dr. Felluga mentioned in class. Image By Tony Hisgett from Birmingham, UK (Clock Tower St Mark's Square 4  Uploaded by tm) [CC BY 2.0 (creativecommons.org/licenses/b…)], via Wikimedia Commons

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by Mikaela Meyer

After three years of planning, demolition, and construction, the Clock Tower was completed and revealed to the public. According to Venetian legend, the monument was so beautiful that the doge wanted to prevent the clockmaker from creating another like it, so the doge blinded him. The structure portrayed a different style of architecture than the rest of St. Mark's Square, which was mostly designed in the 12th century. The Tower stood alone for more than ten years, and it became a focal point for Venice. The image is of the Tower in 1500. Image by Jacopo de' Barbari (1460/1470–before 1516) [Public domain or CC BY-SA 3.0 (creativecommons.org/licenses/b…)], via Wikimedia Commons

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by Mikaela Meyer

  Before the invention of the Gutenbergs' printing press, visual aids were used only by religious monks and scholars. After the widespread distribution of manuscripts and books among the general public, the demand for eyeglasses increased. By 1500, spectacle peddlers were a common sight. They carried baskets of single wire German made spectacles which people would rummage through in order to find the right pair. The image is from Wikimedia Commons and is free to use.  

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by Sahil Lala

Leonardo da Vinci sketched his designs for scuba gear that would allow divers to breathe underwater and attack enemies from under their ships. Venice is surrounded by water, so it is very succeptible to attacks from enemies by ship. While Leonardo da Vinci was living there, he came up with the concept for soldiers to wear these underwater suits, which was a new category for war weapons. The suits were made with face masks to see, breathing tubes that were connected to a floating device for air, and ropes and other weapons can be carried along on the suit. His designs were carefully thought out, where they include metal pieces connecting the tubes to withstand high water pressure, and a pouch for unrine, since divers were anticipated to be submerged for a longer period of time. Picture source: British Library Online Gallery, Leonardo's diving apparatus design. www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/featur…

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by Juliana Ilmain

The Harmonice Musices Odhecaton (One Hundred Songs of Harmonic Music) was a collection of polyphonic Franco-Flemish songs published in 1501 by Venetian printer Ottaviano Petrucci. It was the first book of polyphonic music printed using movable type. Petrucci printed two parts on the right-hand page and two parts on the left-hand page, which allowed four singers or instrumentalists to read from the same sheet. The triple-impression technique was used during the printing process, in which the musical staff was printed first, followed by the text, and then the music notes. The Odhecaton was hugely influential in publishing and in the dissemination of Franco-Flemish musical style. Source: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmonic… Image source: Wikimedia Commons (public domain) 

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by Kate Harris

Italics are first introduced in a volume of Virgil printed by the Aldine Press. The style was created by Francesco Griffo and was meant to mimic the handwritten style used in papal chanceries of this time period. Originally, the type face of ‘italics’ was only developed in lowercase letters and combined with the ‘regular’ uppercase Roman typeface. This edition of Virgil is also the first edition of a non-religious book to be printed in the “pocket,” or octavo, style that could be carried around in one’s pocket. Scholars could now carry and study Virgil and other classics at any time. This image is sourced from Wikimedia Commons and is public domain.

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by Laura Titzer

The statue of Biblical hero David stands 17 feet tall.  It is a masterpiece of Renaissance artist Michelangelo.  He worked on it from 1501 to 1504.  It was commissioned as one of many statues of prophets to be placed along the roofline of the east end of Florence Cathedral, but instead was placed in a public square outside the Palazzo della Signoria on its completion.  To Florence, the statue stands as a symbol of their bold spirit and fight to preserve civil liberties.  The statue was positioned so the eyes of David glared towards Rome in defiance. This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution Share Alike 3.0 Uported License.

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by Kai Strubel

Born in 1505, Thomas Tallis was an important English composer and largely influenced English music by introducing polyphonic music. His early life is not documented well, and there is nothing known about his education.  All that is known is that he appeared in various places in performance, including being a member of the Chapel Royal.  He was the mentor of William Byrd, and together in 1577 they were granted the monopoly for printing music in England, a first at the time.  One of his greatest works was Miserere nostri.  It demonstrated a mastery over the art of counterpoint, and heavily used canon throughout it.  Tallis died on November 20, 1585. Image Source: Britannica.com

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by Justin Chan

As an architect-engineer, Leonardo da Vinci was interested in the relationship between mechanics and human anatomy. He was particularly fascinated by the heart and the flow of blood. Da Vinci was the first to describe the heart as a muscle and a four-chambered organ. He also described the mechanics of blood flow through the chambers, with the atria contracting together and the ventricles relaxing together, and vice versa. Most impressive were his observations of the aortic valve. He utilized a self-constructed glass model of a bovine heart filled with grass seeds suspended in water. He observed vortices at the root of the aorta and correctly hypothesized that the vortices helped close the aortic valve. Because these drawings and notes were never published, this functioning of the valve remained unknown until 1968, when two Oxford engineers published a paper in Nature describing this mechanism, with their only reference being da Vinci’s illustrations and notes of the heart. Sources: ac.els-cdn.com/000349759191371… & www.bbc.com/culture/story/2013… Image source: leonardodavinci.stanford.edu/p… and it is in public domain.

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by Kate Harris

An addition to the Vatican complex, the Sistine Chapel was built for Pope Sixtus IV from 1477-1480. From 1508 to 1512, Michelangelo was commissioned by Pope Julius II to paint the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel. Michelangelo depicted several scenes from the Bible, including the iconic The Creation of Adam. This Renaissance artwork is an example of the growing complexity of art to include depth and even optical illusions as Michelangelo realized that the curved nature of the ceiling would add a unique dimension to his work. The method/materials Michelangelo used were fresco plaster and paint. The image on the timeline, which shows the overall plan of the ceiling, is licensed under Creative Commons and is Public Domain in the USA according to Wikipedia.

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by Barbara McAnulty

 Andrea Palladio was born in Padua but moved to Venice when he was still in his youth. Thirteen-year-old Andrea Palladio was an apprentice to a Venetian stonemason before being taken into a Classical education setting by mentor Gian Giorgio Trissino. Throughout his career, Palladio was responsible for many famous Italian structures, including the Teatro Olimpico theatre, Il Redentore church, and Villa Rotunda home. Palladio spread his genius by reproducing his work in several books in Italian, which made his expertise accessible to a large audience. His most famous publication was Quattro Libri. This image is from Wikipedia and is labeled Public Domain.

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Padua (Padova)

by Barbara McAnulty

Eustachi studied medicine in Rome and Padua. He spent most of his professional career in Rome where he taught anatomy, performed autopsies and dissections, and served as the physician to the Duke of Urbino and eventually the Cardinal Giulio Della Rovere. He was a supporter of Galenic anatomy, unlike his contemporary, Vesalius. He studied the anatomy of the internal ear and correctly described the tube that now bears his name (the Eustachian tube). By 1552, Eustachi had drawn and engraved 47 plates showing the human anatomy he had investigated; however, only 8 plates were printed with text during his lifetime. The unpublished plates were not discovered until the 18th century by Giovanni Maria Lancisi, who proceeded to publish the remaining plates with text in 1714 under the title Tabulae anatomicae Bartholomaei Eustachii. Had his entire collection of plates been published during his lifetime, it is probable that both Eustachi and Vesalius would be recognized as the cofounders of modern human anatomy, as opposed to only Vesalius. Sources: exhibits.hsl.virginia.edu/trea… & www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/his… & en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bartolom… Image source: Wikimedia commons (public domain).

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by Kate Harris

Niccoló Machiavelli was a diplomat in Florence for 14 years while the Medici family was in exile, and attempted to organize a militia against their return. After being found out, he was tortured and jailed, giving him time to step outside the world of politics. Roman history and philosophy inspired authorship of The Prince, a book he wrote during his time outside of politics. This work incorporates values from both the old and new paradigms that were being defined during his era. From the old values, an idolization of cunning and deceitfulness as displayed in the Odyssey. From the new, the idea that destiny is something that can be controlled by decision making rather than falling to the power of fate. His ideas on establishing order and rule may be summed up in this quote from The Prince, "Since love and fear can hardly exist together, if we must choose between them, it is far safer to be feared than loved."

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by Hannah Mylin

1514 Commentariolus (Latin for "Small Commentary") was published by Copernicus.  This 40-page manuscript set out seven axioms describing aspects of the heliocentric solar system.  This included bold statements such as the earth is not the center of the earth, the distance from the sun and earth is only a fraction of the distance from earth to other stars, stars do not move they only appear to because of the earth’s motion.  This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution Share Alike 3.0 Uported License.

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by Kai Strubel

Andreas Vesalius was a Flemish physician who studied medicine in Paris, Louvain, and Padua. Though his professors followed the methods of the ancient physician Galen, Vesalius did not agree with this practice. Vesalius believed that the study of human anatomy should be based on visible proof gained from dissecting human bodies, not from Galen’s theories, which were based on the dissection of animals and the ideas of Hippocrates. In 1543, Vesalius published De humani corporis fabrica (On the Fabric of the Human Body), considered by many to be the world’s most influential book of anatomy. The information and image presented here were obtained from: www.vesaliusfabrica.com/en/ves…. The image is public domain.

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by Kate Harris

Barbaro was an Italian diplomat, cardinal and translator. His main contribution came from translating Vitruvius' De Architectura. In order to translate both the words and drawings, he worked with Palladio. Through this, Palladio was able to practice his drawing and woodworking skills, honing his skills and familiarity with De Architectura. Beyond this, Barbaro served the Republic of Venice in positions such as at the Council of Trent. This information is from architectura.cesr.univ-tours.f…... and “A new general biographical dictionary, Volume 3”, Hugh James Rose, Henry John Rose, 1857, pg. 137. The image is from Wikimedia Commons and is from the public domain.

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by Tim Brunner

  La segregazione degli ebrei – the world’s first Jewish ghetto – was established on March 29, 1516. Before the establishment of the ghetto, Jews in Venice had only been allowed to live on the mainland, not the Dominant (main city of Venice). It was in 1516, after a war between Venice and French and imperial sources, that the Jews fled the mainland and sought refuge in Venice. However, they still feared persecution in Venice and asked that they be “isolated” for their own protection. Ultimately, the establishment of the ghetto segregated the Jewish community from the rest of Venice but also allowed the Jewish culture to flourish. This image is sourced from the Jewish Museum of Venice.

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by Laura Titzer

  All the eyeglasses up till the 16th century were made using convex lenses which were unable to cure near sightedness. This painting by Raphael shows Pope Leo X, one of the first few people to start using concave glasses. Pope Leo X was very near-sighted and used these glasses for hunting. "With them I see better than my companions," are his words. This picture hangs in the Pitti Palace in Florence, where the concave lenses can be seen in his hands. The image is from Wikimedia Commons and is available for public use.  

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by Sahil Lala

  An example of ideas spreading due to the print revolution, the Ninety-Five Theses written by Martin Luther transformed Christianity. Luther, a German monk, vocalized in the theses what he believed was unhealthy about the Catholic Church, including the selling of indulgences and the impersonal, robotic process of sacraments that religion had become. This document sparked the first protestant branch of Christianity. This document adds to the complexity of the Renaissance relationship to Christianity as many aspects of life were becoming more secular. The image is from Wikipedia and is labeled Public Domain.

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by Barbara McAnulty

  Daniel Bomberg, a Belgium that relocated to Venice, was the first to print Hebrew texts in Venice and was also the first in the world to print copies of the Rabbinical Bible and the Talmud, the book of Jewish civil and ceremonial law. As Jews in Venice were not allowed to print or own printing presses by themselves, Bomberg employed several members of the Jewish community to assist him in editing these religious texts. The first editions of the Talmud and Rabbinical Bible, although they are the religious works of Judaism, were printed for everyone to read. Scholars and people of all religions could have access to and study these religious texts that were “fundamental to the development [of] Western culture ("Bound" 2017).” This image is sourced from Wikimedia Commons and is public domain. "Bound in Venice. The First Talmud." PrintedMatter. N.p., n.d. Web. 25 Feb. 2017. <primolevicenter.org/printed-ma….... "The Talmud: Early Editions." Early Editions - Judaic Treasures. N.p., n.d. Web. 25 Feb. 2017. <www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/e…;.

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by Laura Titzer

Giovanni Antonio Rusconi was an architect, engineer translator, and illustrator in Venice. To prepare himself for his career, he studied math at the University of Padova. He spent most of his career as a hydraulic engineer for the Republic of Venice. After noticing errors in Renaissance editions of Vitruvius's works, he set out to translate and provide illustrations for an edition of his own called Della Architettura. However, his translation was not published until 1590, 11 years after his death. His major architectural feats include assisting in the construction of the Palazzo Grimani and the New Prison. The picture is in the public domain, provided by the British Library from its digital collections, and is free for use.

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by Teresa Ortyl

  Cesare Cesariano first published an Italian translation of Vitruvius's De Architecture at Como. It was a massive improvement for the work, as it had been inaccessable to many due to its lack of illustrations and difficult-to-read Latin. The translation remedied both, putting it into language readable to the majority of literate individuals in the area and providing a plethora of illustrations that could be referenced. However, it was plagiarized numerous times and eventually forgotten after the 1556 release of Barbaro's translation with Palladio's illustrations. The image is by Cesare Cesariano [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons. As it is in the public domain since the copyright term has passed, it is free to use.

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by Teresa Ortyl

As efforts at spiritual reformation surfaced in light of the corruption that had taken hold in the Church throughout Europe, Saint Ignatius of Loyola founded the Society of Jesus, a religious order aimed at obedience and loyalty to the Pope. A Spanish priest and theologian, Ignatius aligned himself with the pro-Catholic counter-reformation movement; however, he did not support the corruptive practices of the Papal clergy. Motivated by a desire to restore the Catholic faith, he composed the Spiritual Exercises of Ignatius of Loyola, a set of prayers, meditations, and practices designed to help Christians (primarily Catholics) understand the nature of their relationship to God. Split into four thematic week-long sections, this piece of literature is evidence of the religious shift from a focus on the divinity of God to a focus on the significance of the individual in relation to God.  (Image Source: St. Ignatius of Loyola (1st. ed.) [Public Domain], via Wikimedia Commons, commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.…)

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by Andrew Natoli

While experimenting with various chemicals for medicine, Paracelsus discovered the analgesic properties of diethyl ether. He found these pain-killing properties while performing tests on chickens. This discovery added to the short list of effective drugs of the Renaissance, which included opium and quinine. Image Source: Public Domain, upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia…

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by Ryan Gansemer

Paracelsus named the element zink after its sharp, pointed crystals, which stemmed from the German word "zinke" meaning pointed. He described the new element as tin-like. This element was commonly used in alchemy when the alchemists would burn zinc and collect the product zinc oxide. This discovery laid the foundation for the beginning of the concept of modern chemical elements. Image Source: Public Domain, upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia…...

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by Ryan Gansemer

Waged by the army of the Holy Roman Emperor, the conquest of Rome on May 6, 1527 came after a long-term power struggle between the Roman Empire under Charles III and the Papacy under Pope Clement VII, who had allied himself with several Western European powers. Comprised of Spanish and German mercenaries, the Imperial army attacked the much smaller militia force of the Papal states, besieging the poorly defended Roman city in just over a day. Though the Imperial army suffered the loss of Emperor Charles III, who died in the initial assault, they succeeded in reaffirming dominion over the Papacy in Rome. As a display of their power over Papal affairs, the victorious Imperial troops continued to ransack the city for months, desecrating churches and monasteries, and torturing Roman citizens. Ultimately, though the sack of Rome itself was brief, the belief that the moral failures of the Church were to blame for Rome’s fall—the belief that there was a need for Papal reformation—pervaded much of Western Europe for many years to come. (Image Source: Johannes Lingelbach [Public Domain], via Wikimedia Commons, commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.…)  

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by Andrew Natoli

Paracelsus added salt to sulphur and mercury to make three elements of alchemy, creating an elemental trinity. In medicine, Paracelsus believed in the importance of the trinity as sulphur represented a combustible element, mercury represented a fluid, changeable element, and salt represeneted a solid, permanent element. He believed that these three elements accurately represented alchemical medicine. Sulphur represented the soul, salt represented the body, and mercury represented the spirit. Image Source: Public Domain, upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia…

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by Ryan Gansemer

Iatrochemistry has roots in alchemy, but served as a transition between alchemy and modern medicine as it was popular between approximately 1500 and 1700. Paracelsus was a firm believer in the connection between physical health and the balance of bodily fluids, which led to the development of iatrochemistry. This branch of both chemistry and medicine intended to provide medical solutions in the Renaissance. Image Source: Public Domain, upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia…...

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by Ryan Gansemer

Palladio was first discovered by Trissino while working as a stonemason rebuilding Villa Trissino around 1530. Trissino would then have Palladio study at his academy, which was this very same building. While learning here, Palladio had the opportunity to meet with a variety of people, like the aristocracy of surrounding regions, who would go onto employ him later in life. This information was taken from www.britannica.com/biography/A…. The image is from Wikimedia commons, from By Hans A. Rosbach - Own work, CC BY-SA 2.5, commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.…

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by Tim Brunner

Ivan the Terrible, actually born Ivan IV Vasilyevich, was the Grand Prince of Moscow from 1533 until his death.  Historical records note that Ivan was extremely intelligent, but had mental illnesses and a very short temper. Ivan was able to change the state from a medieval state to an empire and emerging regional power, and then to be crowned the first Tsar of Russia. Additionally, Ivan was a patron of arts and trade and even founded Russia's first publishing house, Moscow Print Yard. Ivan got his nickname because of his bloodthirsty habits and cruel personality.

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by Mara Kossoff

The Palladian window consists of three individual windows: a large, arched window in the middle accompanied by two narrower windows on each side. This style of window was popularized by Andrea Palladio, but the style can be traced back to Sebastiano Serlio in his book L’architettura, written in 1537. Sometimes this style of window is referred to as the Venetian window or Serlian motif. This window was used in European and American architecture after the Renaissance. This information is from Britannica and Lindsay Daniel Architecture. The image is from Wikimedia Commons and is Public Domain.

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by Nathaniel Gollmer

The Venetian polychoral style was a type of music of the late Renaissance and early Baroque eras. It involved spatially separate choirs (cori spezzati) singing in alteration. The style arose from the observed sound delay caused by the distance between the opposing choir lofts in Basilica San Marco, making it difficult for the cori spezzati to sing simultaneously. Composer Adrian Willaert, maestro di cappella of San Marco 1527-1562, solved this problem by writing antiphonal music, where the cori spezzati would sing successive, often contrasting musical lines. The development of this style represented a major stylistic shift from the polyphonic writing of the middle Renaissance to the Baroque era. Source: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venetian… Image source: i44.tinypic.com/2lkdypt.jpg (public domain)

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by Kate Harris

Located on the wall of the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican, the Last Judgement is a fresco by Italian Renaissance master Michelangelo.  The painting shows God’s final judgement of all humanity.  The painting depicts God in the middle of a mass of humans, pulling some up to heaven and damning others to hell.  God is surrounded by depictions of many famous saints.  The work is considered revolutionary because Michelangelo did not depict the figures by their social position, but rather showed everyone in equal standing, bare before God.  The piece received mixed reception.  Some believed that nude figures should not be shown in such a sacred place.  The work took Michelangelo four years to complete.    He was commissioned by Pope Clement VII to paint the resurrection, but when the pope died, Pope Paul III believed the Last Judgement was a more fitting subject.  This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution Share Alike 3.0 Unported License.

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by Kai Strubel

This villa in Bagnolo was built in 1542 by Palladio. This building is significant in Palladio's career because it reflects a turning point in several aspects. Fresh off a trip to Rome a year previous, Palladio architecture begins to reflect his idea of a residence. Yet, this design is far from the Villa that Palladio would go on to describe in The Four Books of Architecture. This building is significant in offering a reference point in the evolution of Palladio. Beyond architecture, this building demonstrates that Palladio is also beginning to attract a wealthy crowd for his services. This information is taken from www.visitpalladio.com/en/node/…. The image is taken from Wikimedia Commons, By Hans A. Rosbach - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.….

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by Tim Brunner

This villa, in Lugo di Vicenza, is the first villa created by Palladio. It goes on to be mentioned in his work "The Four Books of Architecture." This reflects Palladio's first attempt at architecture. This villa has elements of a castle, like a small tower, and of roman architecture. This information was taken from www.villagodi.com/english/hist…. The image is from wikimedia commons, By Stefan Bauer, www.ferras.at - Own work, CC BY-SA 2.5, commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.…

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by Tim Brunner

This book was revolutionary, illustrating with incredible detail the anatomy of the human body. For the first time, accurate depictions of anatomical structures were integrated with descriptive text for the benefit of medical students and practitioners. These depictions were highly informative, as opposed to mere aesthetic visuals of previous writings. The illustrations were also drawn with a degree of naturalism that was previously unknown, perhaps in congruence with or influencing the way ideas about art were shifting from Byzantine to the more realistic pieces typical of perspectival art.

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by Hannah Mylin

1.    1543 De revolutionibus orbium coelestium was published. Copernicus lays out the Copernican heliocentrism, an astronomical model that puts the sun at the center of the universe.  Copernicus describes the sun as sitting motionless at the center as the earth and other planets rotate around it in circular paths.  Copernicus dedicated the book to Pope Paul III, hoping to gain favor from the church.  This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution Share Alike 3.0 Uported License.

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by Kai Strubel

It took Andreas Vesalius a little over two years to write and illustrate De humani corporis fabrica, an influential manual of dissection and anatomical atlas. All of the information and illustrations were based on Vesalius’ dissection of human cadavers. Unlike his teachers and fellow physicians, Vesalius believed only human cadavers could be used to study human anatomy and that the anatomist himself, as opposed to surgeons or barbers, should be the one to conduct the dissection. Vesalius benefited from the intellectual climate of Padua and Venice while compiling his work, and he used master Venetian craftsmen to create the illustrated woodcuts. Though there were many excellent Venetian printers, Vesalius had the manual printed in Basel, Switzerland. It is unknown why he did this, but one hypothesis in that Basel’s location on the Rhine facilitated the manual’s distribution into Northern Europe. Source: www.vesaliusfabrica.com/en/ves… The image is public domain.         

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by Kate Harris

Born in 1543 in London, England, Byrd was a gifted pupil of Thomas Tallis, and showed great talent playing the organ.  Together, these two were tasked by Elizabeth I with importing, printing, publishing, and selling music.  They put these together in a collection called Cantioned sacrae, in which Tallis contributed 16 and Byrd 18.  Byrd continued to write compositions, both church-related and secular.  One of his greatest collections was named Gradualia in which he attempted to comprise music for both the daily routine of mass and the special occasions.  One note about this is that he often composed church music in both English and Latin, which was abnormal for the time. In addition, Byrd played a huge role in pioneering the development of fantasia, another form of music composition that would explode in popularity in the 17th and 18th centuries.  He died on July 4, 1623. Image Source: Wikipedia

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by Justin Chan

Organized in an attempt to promote unity and reform in the Christian community following the excommunication of Martin Luther, the Council of Trent was one of the most influential councils in the history of the Roman Catholic Church. Spanning the reign of three Popes from 1545 to 1563, the council issued a number of decrees in which it established dogma that would serve as the foundation of modern-day Catholicism. In these decrees, the council asserted the Catholic belief in transubstantiation, defined Mass as a sacrifice in remembrance of Christ, condemned Protestant beliefs that it defined as heresy, and ruled against Martin Luther’s belief in justification “by faith alone.” Confirmed by Pope Pius IV in 1564, these decrees—and many others—marked a major victory in the Counter-Reformation movement, and restored the faith of many in the authority of the Catholic Church. (Image Source: Unknown [Public Domain], via Wikimedia Commons, commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.…)

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by Andrew Natoli

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Anointment of Dionisio: Prophecy and Politics in Renaissance Italy  

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by Hannah Mylin

Scamozzi was an architect from Italy, and a pupil of Palladio's. He learned from Palladio directly, and was comissioned to finish several of Palladio's buildings after his death. Although there is clear Palladian influence in his architecture, Scamozzi ventured to leave his mark, as demonstrated by his influence on the Teatro Olimpico. Like Palladio, he wrote a book on architecture, titled "L'Idea dell'Architectura Universale." This information was taken from www.nytimes.com/2003/10/04/sty….... This image is from Wikimedia Commons and is from the public domain. 

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by Tim Brunner

The Palladian Basilica started renovation in 1549 and was fully completed in 1614. Palladio designed the major renovations, however, died before the project was completed. It was intended to be used as a public space for the people. The upper floor is one giant room, with no columns supporting the weight of the roof. During construction, part of the famous two-story loggias, or porches, collapsed, thus Palladio was hired to fix the engineering issues of the building. It is located in the Piazza dei Signori. This information is from www.museicivicivicenza.it/en. The picture is from Wikimedia Commons and is free to share.

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by Nathaniel Gollmer

Giovanni Gabrieli was an Italian composer and organist. It is believed he studied under his uncle, Andrea Gabrieli, who was trained by Adrian Willaert. In 1585, Gabrieli became principal organist at Basilica San Marco, and was also appointed principal composer after his uncle’s death. He was also appointed organist at Scuola Grande di San Rocco. He held all three positions until his death.   Basilica San Marco had a long tradition of musical excellence and Gabrieli’s work there made him one of the most noted composers in Europe. His influential Sacrae symphoniae attracted composers from all over Europe, specifically Germany, to study in Venice. This influx of German pupils helped transport Gabrieli’s music north to Germany, leading to the production of German Baroque that is well-known today. Gabrieli’s most famous musical innovations include the use of dynamics, echoing musical lines, and precise directions for instrumentation, which expanded upon Willaert’s polychoral style. He carefully specified groups of instruments and singers in seemingly odd positions around San Marco so that each could be heard with perfect clarity and in perfect balance. Source: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni… Image source: www.uh.edu/engines/epi2621.htm (public domain)     

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by Kate Harris

Signed on September 25, 1555, the Peace of Augsburg was an agreement between the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V and an alliance of Lutheran princes that paved the way for greater religious freedom in Western Europe. The treaty allowed for the prince of each state within the Holy Roman Empire to decide on either Lutheranism or Roman Catholicism as the official religion in the domain over which he reigned. Under the treaty, the citizens and subjects of a given state—upon the declaration of the official religion within said state—who were not in agreement with the announced religion were provided a grace period in which they could relocate to a place where they could practice freely their desired religion. Not only did this paradigm shift convey the Catholic Church in a less absolutist light, but it also highlighted a trend toward a belief in the importance of the individual and of his preferences in religious observance. (Image Source: Unknown [Public Domain], via Wikimedia Commons, commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.…)  

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by Andrew Natoli

A product of the Roman Inquisition, the Index Librorum Prohibitorum was an annually renewed list of books, journals, and other publications viewed as heretical by the Catholic Church. Viewed as a moral and spiritual safeguard against Protestantism, censorship of anti-clerical literature was enforced in the Papal States, where heretical books were not only outlawed, but sought out during domiciliary visits from the clergy. Each publication on the list was examined closely with the intention of finding an excerpt or a statement that could be interpreted as anti-Catholic (i.e. against the interests of the Church or the faith). Authors and readers of heretical publications—among them Galileo, whose “Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems” sparked controversy among Church officials—were tried by the Inquisition; punishment for such crimes ranged in severity from house arrest to imprisonment to execution. (Image Source: Jastrow (Own Work (Own Picture)) [Public Domain], via Wikimedia Commons, commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.…)

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by Andrew Natoli

  The New Prison (also known by the names Palazzo delle Prigioni or Prigione Nuove) was built to house prisoners in Venice, which allowed for the prison portion of the Doge's palace to be reduced as prisoners were transferred to the New Prison instead. The work's construction is ascribed to 5 main individuals. Giovanni Antonio Rusconi was the first architect on the project. The second architect to work on it was Antonio da Ponte. During his time working with the construction of the New Prison, he consulted with Zaccaria Briani, who was sentenced to a life in prison but worked on the project in exchange for 3 years commuted from his sentence, to improve aspects of the prison such as lighting and ventilation. The New Prison was finished by brothers Antonio and Tommaso Contin. The picture is by Abxbay (Own work) [CC BY-SA 3.0 (creativecommons.org/licenses/b…)], via Wikimedia Commons. It is free to copy and redistribute.

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by Teresa Ortyl

Villa Capra “La Rotonda” is one of the most recognizable buildings from the Renaissance. Construction started in 1567 on the project and was designed by Palladio. During construction, Palladio died and Vincenzo Scamozzi took over the project. Neither Palladio nor Paolo Almerico, the owner, were present for the physical construction of the building. The villa was designed to be located in the suburbs, however, it is now a country farm. The building is a square and each side has its own façade. Palladio originally intended for the roof to be dome-shaped, but it was finished with smaller dome topped with a cupola. This information is from architectuul.com. The photo is from Wikimedia Commons and is free to share.

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by Nathaniel Gollmer

Translating to "The Four Books of Architecture", this work by Palladio is a set of nine rules on architecture from walls to details. This work was published in Venice in 1570. The designs mix Roman influence with the new ways of thinking from the renaissance. Widely disseminated, this book influenced architectural design for years to come. This information comes from architectura.cesr.univ-tours.f….... The image is taken from Wikimedia commons, from Sailko. 

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by Tim Brunner

The Galleass, also called galeazze, was a naval ship first used in 1571 against the Ottoman Empire in the Battle of Lepatano.  The Galleass’s shape and design comes from earlier Venetian ships called galea grossa. The galea grossa, which in English means great galley, according to an academic paper from High Point University written by Andrew Tzavaras, is better than  the smaller, commonplace galley because the "standard galleys lacked cargo holds, devoting most of their decks to the oarsmen, great galleys offered a balance between speed, space, and security.”  The Galleass is similar to the galea grossa except that the Galleass is much larger and takes advantage of gunpowder.  The Galleass became one of the very first naval ships to implement cannons and explosives. As a result, the Galleass was very dominant in the Mediterranean and was successful at keeping the Ottoman Empire at bay with its impressive bombardment during the late 1500s. After defeating the Ottomans at battle, fame of the galleass spread throughout Europe. Lastly, The Galleass served as the basis for later ship models such as the frigate.  Source: Tzavarus, A. (n.d.). The Galleasses at Lepanto as a Reflection of the Sixteenth-Century Venetian Strategic Outlook [Scholarly project]. Retrieved from gjh.ojs.chass.ncsu.edu/index.php/Graduate/article/download/13/pdf_7 This picture is public domain because the picture is from A History of Naval Architecture which was published in 1851.

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by Jacob Hussey

Having taken place in 1572, the Saint Barholomew's Day massacre was a targeted group of assassinations that was then followed by a bout of Roman Catholic mob violence. The massacre began two days after the attempted assassination of Admiral Gaspard de Coligny who was a political and military leader of the Huguenots. The mob violence that ensued after the original massacre was also aimed at the Huguenots. Catherine de' Medici is thought of as the person who initiated the massacre to begin with. 

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by Mara Kossoff

Translating to "the Redeemer", this church by Palladio was built in order to offer thanks for those that survived the plague of 1575. This church was built in the Palladian style, reflecting Roman influence. Each year in July, there is a festival (The Festa del Redentore) that culminates in the Doge attending mass at Il Redentore. This information was taken from www.greatbuildings.com/buildin…. The image is from CC BY-SA 3.0, commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.…

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by Tim Brunner

  On December 20, 1577, a devestating fire swept through the Doge's palace, destroying much of the southern part of the building. The Great Council Chamber and artwork made by notable artists of the day were among the things damaged in the fire. When rebuilding the Doge's palace after the damages, the original gothic design of the building was kept, although some neoclassical elements were incorporated into it. Because there was minimal structural damage due to the fire, the reconstruction was finished by 1580. The picture is by Radomil (Own work) [GFDL (www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html), CC-BY-SA-3.0 .(creativecommons.org/licenses/b…) or CC BY 2.5 (creativecommons.org/licenses/b…)], via Wikimedia Commons. It is free to copy and redistribute.

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by Teresa Ortyl

an analysis of falling objects that departed from the traditional Aristolian views.  At this time, he was teaching at the University of Pisa.  Here he conducted his famed experiments on falling objects.  It is said that he demonstrated these bold ideas by dropping two cannonballs of different weights off of the leaning tower of Pisa, showing that they accelerated at the same rate. 

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by Kai Strubel

This is one of William Byrd's most famous compositions.  This along with a collection he released a year earlier called Psalms, Sonnets and Songs of Sadness and Pietie are both recognized to have extremely impressive use of vocal parallels, which Byrd synced with the instruments. This is also notable because it is a secular volume, but was dedicated to a Catholic.  This was to show his loyalty to the Crown, while also keeping true to his beliefs. Image source: imslp.org

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by Justin Chan

This is a manuscript created by William Byrd, and is often considered one of the most important Renaissance keyboard collections.  It was put together as his 42 best works for keyboard, with some notable pieces including The Passinge Mesures Pavian and Galliarde and Have with yow to Walsingame.  It was often said that these compositions were an incredible inspiration to Johann Bach and Beethoven, and that this collection is one of the first to really leave an impact on Western music.  It is also fascinating because these pieces show a transition of style.  The earlier music shows his polyphonic counterpoint style, but then transitions to the demanding, energetic, rhythmically intensive pieces of his later pieces. Image source: Amazon

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by Justin Chan

Constructed in 1594 by Girolamo Fabricius Acquapendente, the anatomical theater at the University of Padova’s Palazzo del Bo is the oldest surviving anatomical theater in the world. The theater has an elliptical shape and has six tiers carved from walnut, with enough room for 300 guests. The tiers are designed so every student would have an uncompromised view of the dissection table, which is still in place. Andreas Vesalius practiced in this anatomical theater and dissections were performed until 1872. An original inscription can still be seen today, which reads, Hic locus est ubi mors gaudet succurrere vitae (This is a place where the dead are pleased to help the living). Sources: www.italymagazine.com/featured… & www.atlasobscura.com/places/pa… Image source: www.nature.com/nature/journal/… and it is public domain.  

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by Kate Harris

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mso-style-priority:99; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0in; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:Calibri; mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-latin; mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin;} The first permanent anatomical theatre was inaugurated in 1595 and was still used up to the year of 1872. Girolamo Fabrici D’Acquapendente spearheaded the project as he himself was an anatomist and saw the value in having a permanent structure in which to teach. Previously, theatres were made of wood and were erected and dismantled as needed for public dissections. This was an important step for the advancement of medicine in science. Andreas Vesalius, who wrote and illustrated the textbook De humani corporis fabrica used this theatre for dissections. Even in this functional space, there is beautiful concentric architectural design being displayed in the elegant curves of every row and carvings in the banisters. It is reminiscent of a camera obscura type of building, with a large light source at the top.

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by Hannah Mylin

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mso-style-priority:99; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0in; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:Calibri; mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-latin; mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin;} In Florence, Italy, the first opera was performed under the watchful eye of Jacopo Peri. It is indicative of a new musical age, as the emergence of a new paradigm centered around human perspective was developing. The opera is an exploration of individuality and appreciation of beauty in the art itself, and making its focus humanity rather than pointing toward a divine God.     

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by Hannah Mylin

The original theatre was constructed in 1599, but later burned down. The reconstruction was finished in 1614 and then demolished in 1644. The final reconstruction of the theatre was done at what historians believe to be around the same area as the original theatre and was built to accurately represent the orignal in terms of seating and layout. The theatre has a capacity of 1400 spectators, though the original had a capacity of 3000. Image source: londonkatalog.com/shakespeares…

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by Caroline Brown

This portrait by El Greco was completed in 1600. It is among the first ones to show the evolving field of optics. By the 17th Century, frames made for holding the lenses could reach over the ears and were made from different materials. The image is from Wikimedia Commons and is available for public use.

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by Sahil Lala

A time period of over exaggerated and emotional compositions.  A major driving force behind the philosophy of the time was that music was a powerful tool to invoke emotions out of its listeners and to communicate to them.  This belief stemmed from the fact that the Renaissance thinkers largely looked to Greek and Roman ideas. This was the time period where music began to have a large contrast within a song, and that a distinct melody and harmony began to come out. One of the most famous composers of this time period was Johann Sebastian Bach, known for his "grand, truly Protestant, robust and erudite genius" (Hegel). Image Source: Wikipedia

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by Justin Chan

Counterpoint was an musical style that comprised of combining different melodic lines, and shaped Western musical elements.  Often, this term is interchanged with the word polyphony, but counterpoint is a more specific use of multiple melodic lines whereas polyphony only refers to the presence of multiple melodies.  During the Renaissance, many composers focused their efforts on imitation, or the successive statement of similar melodies in each of the voices. Often, to ensure a clear relation between the two voices, the composers would have the two voices sing together and be separated by a certain interval.  This was also the beginning of the popularization of canon, which is a musical form that has imitated parts throughout the piece.

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by Justin Chan

  The Bridge of Sighs was designed by Antonio Contin to connect the Doge's Palace to the New Prison (which was still under construction at the time the Bridge of Sighs was built). Unfortunately, Antonio Contin died before he could see it constructed. It is of neoclassical style with its most notable features the faces on the bottom-most part of the sides and its ornate windows. The name Bridge of Sighs was first given by Lord Byron from the idea that those who crossed it on the way to the New Prison would sigh upon looking out the windows as it was the last glimpse of Venice before being placed in prison. The picture is by Nino Barbieri (Own work) [GFDL (www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html), CC-BY-SA-3.0 .(creativecommons.org/licenses/b…) or CC BY 2.5 (creativecommons.org/licenses/b…)], via Wikimedia Commons. It is free to copy and redistribute.

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by Teresa Ortyl

Hamlet is one of the most influential works of literature in the Western world. It's Shakespeare's longest piece and tells the tragic story of Prince Hamlet's revenge on his uncle Claudius and the fallout from his actions. The Danish prince is haunted by the ghost of his late father and it slowly drives him mad. Hamlet is also one of Shakespeare's most performed plays. Countless adaptations have been made since its publishing in an unknown time between 1599 and 1602. The play contains the famous "to be or not to be" soliloquy that most people read at some point during high school or college. Image source: thehundredbooks.com/Hamlet.htm

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by Caroline Brown

The world’s first newspaper, Relation aller Furnemmen und gedenckwurdigen Historien , or “Relation,” was printed by Johann Carolus beginning in 1605.  The newspaper was published in the city of Strasbourg, a “free imperial city under the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation.” The newspaper was printed regularly so that citizens in the area could keep up with local news.  This image was sourced from Wikimedia Commons and is public domain.  

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by Laura Titzer

Dutch Spectacle maker Hans Lippershey applies for a patent with the State General of the Netherlands for the first refracting telescope. This early telescope was capable of magnifying objects to three times their normal size. Several weeks later, Jacob Metius, another Dutch spectacle maker, applied for the same patent. Due to the controversy surrounding who invented the telescope and the simplicity of the design, Lippershey was not granted the patent. He was however paid handsomely by the Dutch government for copies of his design, which were used in warfare spy on opposing sides. The image is of Lippershey and is from wikimedia commons.

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by Catriona White

In Venice, Galileo learns of the "Dutch perspective glass", at the time the name for the telescope, and it's ability to make distant objects look larger. He immediately invented his first telescope despite having never seen one before and only having access to basic descriptions of Hans Lippershey's design. Galileo claims to have created his first telescope the day after hearing of the device. He then spent several days improving it. He went on to present this design to the public and doge Leonardo Donato. As a result, he was settled into his lectureship at Padua and had his salary doubled. The image below is a painting by H. J. Detouche and is of Galileo presenting his telescope to the doge. It is from Wikimedia commons and is public domain.

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by Catriona White

Galileo published The Starry Messenger, a booklet explaining his discoveries that the moon was not flat and smooth, but a sphere with mountains and craters.  These findings were made possible by the telescope, a recent invention Galileo learned of in July of 1609.  He learned to make his own, 32 times as powerful. He discovered Jupiter’s moons, now called Galileon moons.  His discoveries supported the Coppernicous theory that Celestial bodies rotate around each other. This view contradicted the Church’s doctrine and therefore was labeled heresy. This image is licenced under the Creative Commons Attribution Share Alike 3.0 Unported license.

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by Kai Strubel

Johannes Kepler improves on the Galilean telescope design. Due to a flawed design, most notably an inefficient lens shape and narrow field of view, most images observed with a Galilean telescope were distorted and out of focus. Magnification was also roughly limited to 30 times normal size. Kepler improved upon Galileo's design by using a convex lens for the eyepiece instead of a concave lens, as Galileo used. This allowed for a wider field of view and greater magnification, however the images were inverted, so anything observed through the telescope was upside down. The issue with this design was that in order to increase magnification further, the telescope had to be longer. The longest of these telescopes noted was 150 feet in focal length and was unable to support its own weight. The image above is a rough schematic for the design of this telescope. Image from Wikimedia and is public domain. 

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by Catriona White

The telescope was first official coined a "telescope" by the Greek Poet Giovanni Demisiani. The name roughly translates from two Greek words: tele - meaning "far", and scopion - meaning "to look or see". These two were combined to make the word 'teleskopos' translated into "far seeing". The telescope was named at a banquet held by Prince Federico Cesi, honoring Galileo as he was made a member of the "Accademia dei Lincei". This naming also lead to the standard name of the "Galilean telescope," as Galileo's contributions and uses of the telescope overshadowed those made by initial inventor Hans Lippershey. Image from Wikipedia and is public domain. 

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by Catriona White

Galileo published findings that contradicted the Aristotelian way of thinking in “Discourse on Bodies of Water”.  It argued that objects do not float because of their flat shape but because of their relative weight to the water they displace.  Galileo also started mounting evidence in support of the Copernican theory, contradicting the views of the Church and Aristotle.  1616 Church order Galileo not to “hold, teach, or defend, or defend in any manner” the Copernican theory.  This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution Share Alike 3.0 Uported License.

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by Kai Strubel

The book was a dialogue between three people: one who supports the Aristotelian way of thinking, one who supports the Copernican theory, and one who is impartial. Galileo was allowed to continue his research and publish with the permission of Pope Urban VIII, a friend of Galileo, on condition that his work was impartial.  Galileo claimed his publication was neutral but it was obviously in favor of Copernican theory.  In his writing, the supporter of Aristotle was portrayed as dim witted, often getting confused and tangled in his own arguments.  This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution Share Alike 3.0 Uported License.  

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by Kai Strubel

1.       September 1632 to July 1633 Galileo was under inquisition by the Church.  He was summoned to Rome immediately after the publication of “Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems”. He was eventually charged with heresy and spent the rest of his life under house arrest.  His writings were banned. He was ordered to not have any visitors or publish any work, however he disobeyed both and continued to publish his work in other countries. This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution Share Alike 3.0 Uported License.      

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by Kai Strubel

While experimenting with a Keplerian telescope, William Gascoigne discovered that an image viewed with a telescope became clearer when the optical focal points of two lenses was combined. Realizing that a telescope could be more accurately used when using a line to guide its direction, he created a new telescopic sight. He then created a sextant, similar to the ones used by Tycho Brahe, to measure the distance between celestial bodies with a stunning level of accuracy for the time. This was due to Gascoigne adding two adjustable points and a screw in order to increase the accuracy of the measurement. This would eventually be called a micrometer, and was one of the most common tools used for astronomical research for more than a century. Image of Robert Hooke's drawing of an early micrometer. The image is from Wikimedia and is public domain.

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by Catriona White

Paracelsus unknowingly observed hydrogen as he reacted acids with metals, making hydrogen gas as a side product. Theodore de Mayerene, a Swiss-born physician with Parecelsian thinking, repeated Paracelsus's experiments for the reaction between metals and acids. While de Mayerne did not know the gas produced was hydrogen or even a new element, he did discover that the byproduct gas was flammable, a crucial observation in the understanding of chemical reactions in the future. Image Source: Public Domain, upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia…...

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by Ryan Gansemer

In the 1600s and the beginning of the 1700s the navy of Venice and the production output of the Arsenal of Venice were on the decline as the galley that had been used for centuries had finally became obsolete and even the galleass, known in Italian as galeazza, was being replaced by frigates and three-deck woodedn ships known as "Ship of the Line" and "Man-of War" produced by the powerful British Empire as well as other northern European countries like France This work is public domain in its country of origin and other countries and areaswhere the copyright term is the author's life plus 100 years or less. Source: www.venicethefuture.com/schede…      

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by Jacob Hussey

Christiaan Huygens and his brother create the first powerful Keplerian telescope with an objective diameter of 2.24 inches and a focal length of 12 feet. He used this device to discover Titan, the largest moon of Saturn, and the tenth largest object in the solar system. He also used the same telescope to observe the Orion Nebula with enough precision to observe individual stars. Finally he used his telescope to study the rings of Saturn, and to create theories on what they were. He went on to publish his findings in Systema Saturnium, which included drawings of the Orion Nebula and characteristics of and an explanation for the rings of Saturn.

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by Catriona White

Isaac Newton creates the first functional reflecting telescope. After studying the reflecting telescopes created by Galileo and Kepler, he determined that when light was refracted through the lens of the telescope, would distort the color (although this theory is not correct in all cases). In order to improve the telescope's capabilities, he began designing a new telescope, a reflecting telescope, which he completed in 1668. This "Newtonian Telescope" was more powerful than any refracting telescope of the same size. Rather than looking directly at the object through curved glass, which is how a refracting telescope works, a reflecting telescope uses angled mirrors to not distort color. This is the most popular type of telescope in the modern day. Image comparison courtesy of optics and binoculars.

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by Catriona White

In 1739, French inventor Jacque de Vaucanson invented the Digesting Duck.  The creation was the same size as a real duck and designed to appear as if it could digest small kernals of grain.  The duck would eat the food and it would collect in an internal container.  The duck would then produce pre-stored feces from another internal container to give the appearance of digestion.  Vaucanson's hope was a truly digesting automation would be designed.  Image is a picture of the design for the digesting duck. Image by Unknown - [1], Public Domain, commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.…

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by Susannah Pritchett-Montavon

Multiple modifications and renovations have been completed in the Clock Tower's history. For this renovation, Bartolomeo Ferracina was tasked with fixing the Magi carousel and the Angel. Today's visitors to the Clock Tower can see these same figures. He also made a new movement for the clock that  As payment for this work, Ferracina was given the old clock mechanism and the original astronomical dial. Image by After Canaletto [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons

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by Mikaela Meyer

  After being sentenced to 5 years in prison in the Leads, cells under the Doge's Palace lead slab-covered roof, Giacomo Casanova plotted his escape from the prison. Although his first attempt failed after he was moved to a new cell, he enlisted the help of Father Balbi, who was in the adjacent cell, to make holes in the ceiling of both Casanova and Balbi's cells to escape. They then made their way out through the roof and stayed the night in one of the other rooms of the Doge's Palace. Finally, they fully escaped the Palace after lying to a guard to get out the door. This portrait of Giacomo Casanova by his brother Francesco is in the public domain because the copyright term has been passed (author's life plus 100 years).

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by Teresa Ortyl

On the original Clock Tower, there was carousel of Magi following an angel playing a trumpet. Thanks to a type of organ pipe, the trumpet actually played a sound. After the movement renovation was completed in 1757, Ferracina repaired the Magi carousel. He finished in 1759, and at that time, the carousel's schedule was changed. Now, the procession is only shown fifteen days out of the year. When the procession occurs, the Magi and angel pass in front of this statue of the Virgin Mary. Image By Tony Hisgett from Birmingham, UK (Clock Tower St Mark's Square 3  Uploaded by tm) [CC BY 2.0 (creativecommons.org/licenses/b…)], via Wikimedia Commons

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by Mikaela Meyer

Alessandro Volta, an Italian physicist and chemist, created the first chemical battery, and as a result, founded the discipline of electrochemistry. The battery, called the voltaic pile, was one of the first chemical cells consisting of a zinc electrode and a copper electrode with saltwater brine as the electrolyte. This discovery of a way to create constant electric current led to more electricity-related discoveries later in the century. Image source: Public Domain, upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia…

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by Ryan Gansemer

In the early parts of the nineteenth century, Napolean and France had taken over the Italian Penisula including Venice. Napolean made some changes to the Arsenal of Venice including updating and modernizing the area to match the shipbuilding system of the French Empire.  The Arsenal of Venice also became the base of operations of the Adriatic Sea for the French fleet.  Source: arsenalofvenice.weebly.com/his…. This work is in the public domain in its country of origin and other countries and areas where the copyright term is the author's life plus 100 years or less

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by Jacob Hussey

The first edition of Mary Shelley's Frankenstein was published anonymously in 1818, but the version with her name on the cover wasn't published until 1823. Shelley gained inspiration from traveling around Europe with future husband Percy Shelley and Lord Byron. They participated in ghost story telling competitions while traveling around, which is where some of her inspiration came from. Frankenstein tells the tale of Victor Frankenstein, a young scientist who creates a hideous creature and the trials of the creature after being abandoned by Frankenstein. The novel implements the frame story narrative style of storytelling, which was unique at the time. Her novel fuses together the genres of Gothic fiction with the notions of the Romantic movement. It's also seen as early science fiction work. The idea for the novel came to Shelley in a dream that later became the basis for Frankenstein. Mary Shelley's novel was hugely influential on the world of science fiction and horror. Image source: frankensteinia.blogspot.com/20…...

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by Caroline Brown

Sir George Cayley, an English engineer, was the first to successfully study and understand the underlying principles associated with powered flight, as well as the first to accomplish unpowered flight without use of a balloon. He was the first to theorize about fixed wing aircraft, and determined that the system would need a separate propulsion system and a stabilizing tail. He also determined that the wings of an aircraft would need to be curved (have camber) to efficiently generate lift. He would go on to be the first human to fly on a glider in 1853, proving his theories on lift and aviation. His work greatly influenced the Wright Brothers and their invention of the powered aircraft. The included image is his glider, published in Mechanics Magazine in 1852, and found on Wikimedia.

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by Catriona White

The building and mechanism required repair in the 1850s. The custodian and a clock technician wrote a technical brief about the state of the Clock Tower and the repairs they deemed necessary to complete. Luigi De Lucia was tasked with making these repairs. Also, a committee asked him to figure out a way to show the time in the dark. De Lucia decided to use illuminated panelled wheels that display the time in five minute intervals. This addition was one of the first tower clocks that used a digital format. Image By Tony Hisgett from Birmingham, UK (Clock Tower St Mark's Square 3  Uploaded by tm) [CC BY 2.0 (creativecommons.org/licenses/b…)], via Wikimedia Commons

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by Mikaela Meyer

Artist Gustav Klimt was born in Baumgarten, Austrian Empire on July 14, 1862. Klimt was influential in the Vienna Secession movement and devoted his life to his work, with a particular interest in painting the female body. Klimt's most famous work is his piece The Kiss (Lovers) which he finished in 1908 during his "Golden Period". This period was named as such because many of his works included gold leaf and were primarily painted in the color gold. Klimt was a controverisal artist who pushed the boundaries and even made the public feel uncomfortable at times with his erotic pieces. His depictions of the naked female body are very reminiscent of Renaissance period artwork. Image source: www.leopoldmuseum.org/en/leopo…

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by Caroline Brown

In 1866, after Venice became a part of the Kingdom of Italy, the Italians decided to modernize the Arsenal of Venice to help it be able to make steam-powered naval units such as the the "Ironclad" made famous in the American Civil War.  Although the Italians had to make changes to the structure for the new classes of naval vessels, it desired to make sure the historic parts of it remain the same.  This tradition off kepping Venice the same way it was back centuries prior still continues to this day.  Source:  www.venicethefuture.com/schede… This work is in the public domain in its country of origin and other countries and areas where the copyright term is the author's life plus 100 years or less.  

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by Jacob Hussey

The world's first psychology lab was founded by Wilhelm Wundt at the University of Leipzig in Germany. This event is viewed as what catapulted psychology into the world of academia, taking it from a theoretical discipline to a scientific one. The creation of the lab truly turned psychology into its own discipline, rather than just a mixture of biology and philosophy. Wundt did research primarily on structuralism, which breaks down cognitions into their components and studying those basics elements. Image source: psychclassics.yorku.ca/Munster…

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by Caroline Brown

Thomas Parker, an inventor from London and leading researcher in batteries and electricity at the time, built the first production car to be electric-powered. These galvanic cell-powered vehicles were built using Parker's own high-capacity rechargeable batteries. Parker dedicated his life to the development and manufacturing of more fuel-efficient cars and the optimization of galvanic battery cell chemistry. This interest was a result of his concern about the detrimental effects of smoke and pollution in urban London. Image source: Public Domain, upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia…...      

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by Ryan Gansemer

The linotype machine was invented in 1884 by Ottmar Mergenthaler in the United States of America. A linotype machine works with a matrix molded system. An operator can type the desired text in a keyboard on the machine and the machine will fill in the letters required for each line of text, including spaces. The linotype machine revolutionized the process of printing, especially items, such as newspaper, that required many small lines of text. This image was sourced from Wikimedia Commons.  

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by Laura Titzer

In the year 1885 at the Arsenal of Venice, the first Venetian battleship, Franceso Morosini, was built.  Venice was able to produce such a large ship thanks to scientific advancements such the Bessemer Process which made mass production of steel a lot quicker than ever before.  However, even though the construction of this ship was a great feat,  the late 1800s were the last of Arsenal of Venice's days of large production of naval ships.  The Francesco Morosini marks the end of an era for Venice as its days of superior naval production are long past.  Source: From craft production to industrial production. (n.d.). Retrieved February 07, 2017, from arsenalofvenice.weebly.com/fro… This photograph is in the public domain in Italy because it was first published in Italy and its term of copyright has expired. According to Law for the Protection of Copyright and Neighbouring Rights n.633, 22 April 1941

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by Jacob Hussey

The Campanile (bell tower) collapsed suddenly due to multiple construction flaws. No one died in the collapse except for the Campanile's custodian's cat. Fortunately, the church was saved because the corner column did not collapse. The Municipal Administration promised that the Campanile would be rebuilt just as it was. This is an image of the ruins after the collapse. See page for author [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons, commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fil…'s_Campanile.jpg

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by Mikaela Meyer

Wilbur and Orvill Wright were the first to perform a powered fight on what would become the precursor to all modern aircraft. The pair of brothers observed birds and avidly read the work of Sir George Cayley to create their aircraft. Leading up to the first successful aircraft, they preformed preliminary wind tunnel testing in their bicycle shop to predict aircraft performance, combined a rudder with warped wings to perform coordinated turns, developed their own gas powered engine, and created a highly efficient professor. Their first famous flight in Kitty Hawk North Carolina lasted for 12 seconds and flew 120 feet. The Wright brothers flew multiple times that day, the longest lasting 59 seconds and travelling 852 feet. This marked the beginning of the development of the aircraft that is used today. The image is from the first day of flight and is from Wikimedia commons.

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by Catriona White

In 1927, Metropolis was the first movie to portray a humanoid robot in film.  This piece is one of the first works of the science-fiction genre.  In Metropolis, the son of the city ruler and a poor worker team up to try and overcome the large separation between the classes in this futuristic urban dystopia.  Image is a picture of the humanoid robot from the movie Metropolis retrieved from Unknown - archivio personale, Public Domain, commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.….

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by Susannah Pritchett-Montavon

Abraham Maslow is a humanist psychologist who focused his research on the positive qualities that people possess, rather than seeing them as a bag of issues that needs to be fixed. The humanist movement in psychology helped shape the current world of psychology and focuses on how people are innately good and capable of changing their own worlds. The hierarchy of needs is based around the idea of self actualization, which is the top of the pyramind. Only 1 in 100 people achieve self-actualization by the end of their lifetime. Each level must be fulfilled before proceeding on to the next. The bottom of the pyramid is physiological needs like water, shelter, and rest. The next level is safety needs, then belongingness, esteem, and finally self-actualization. The pyramid progresses in a way that each section of a person's life fits in to one of the categories. When you're born you mostly just need rest and to be fed. Then as you get older your needs become more complex. Image source: www.huffingtonpost.com/steve-m…...

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by Caroline Brown

The Cognitive Revolution in psychology was prompted by the Behaviorism movement. The Behaviorists focused their research primarily on observable behavior alone, completely disregarding any mental events because they couldn't be directly observed. Famous behaviorists include Ivan Pavlov and John Watson. Cognitive psychologists believe that the mind is complex and there are many different explanations for behavior. They tend to use a computer metaphor, with the hardware being what humans biologically have and the software being cognitions and patterns of thought. The cognitive revolution changed the world of psychology completely and helped shape it into the one we know today. Image source: www.creativitycenter.ch/bloc_d…...

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by Caroline Brown

Giovanni Peratoner was the custodian in 1951 when the overhaul began. The overhaul was necessary because the Tower building had moved slightly over time, so the bob did not reach the room below it. In order to overhaul the movement, Peratoner raised the pendulum's point of suspension. The clock was up and running again in 1953. Image by By Juan Manuel Caicedo [CC BY-SA 2.0 (creativecommons.org/licenses/b…)], via Wikimedia Commons

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by Mikaela Meyer

Bell Laboratory scientists Calvin Fuller and Gerald Pearson announced the invention of the first practical silicon-based solar cell. These cells were later displayed at the National Academy of Science Meeting. This cell was also used to power a solar-powered radio transmitter, which broadcasted this meeting. Initially, the solar cells had an efficiency of 6%, but today commercial solar panels have up to 20% efficiency. The New York Times speculated that these cells "may provide more power than all the world's coal, oil, and uranium," which excited engineers around the globe. Image: Public Domain,  commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Sol…    

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by Ryan Gansemer

In 1957, Italian historian, Carlo Pedretti, rediscovered Leonardo da Vinci’s notebook.  The notebook included the notes and sketches for da Vinci’s anatomical research and many mechanical designs, including the mechanical knight. The image is one of the pages from da Vinci’s notebook.  The notes pictured are from his anatomical study of the human arm.  Image: Public Domain, commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.…;

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by Susannah Pritchett-Montavon

In 1961, General Motors installed the first industrial robot in its Inland Fisher Guide Plant in New Jersey.  This robot was called Unimate and it was also the first modern programmable robot; it was autonomous and pre-programmed to repeatedly move pieces of hot metal in the plant. Image is an industrial robot used in metal manufacturing.  Image by KUKA Roboter GmbH, Bachmann - KUKA Roboter GmbH, Zugspitzstraße 140, D-86165 Augsburg, Germany, Dep. Marketing, Mr. Andreas Bauer, www.kuka-robotics.com, Public Domain, commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.…

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by Susannah Pritchett-Montavon

  From 1966-1972, the Artifical Intelligence Center of Stanford institute developed the first robot with the ability to make its own decisions about how to behave.  Shakey was able to receive, interpret, and execute natural language commands, even when they were multistep processes.  Shakey was later inducted into the Carnegie Mellon Univerisyt’s Robot Hall of Fame in 2004.  Image is a picture of Shakey the robot with its parts labelled.  Image by SRI International - SRI International, CC BY-SA 3.0, commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.…

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by Susannah Pritchett-Montavon

Psychologist Philip Zimbardo masterminded this iconic experiment at Stanford University in the summer of 1971. He made a simulation of a jail and randomly assigned students to either the role of prisoner or guard. Zimbardo and associates wanted to answer the question of what causes the abuse between prisoners and guards in a prison. The experiment escalated quickly. Guards began abusing their power and unjustly punishing and harassing the prisoners. Zimbardo's simulation had morphed into something much more telling. This experiment is used as an example of the effects of power and hierarchy on behavior and is studied in most entry level psychology courses. Image source: www.cbsnews.com/pictures/shock…...

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by Caroline Brown

In March of 1989, Sir Tim Berners-Lee began the layout of what would later be the World Wide Web. He graduated from Oxford and became a software engineer at CERN shortly after. While working for CERN, Berners-Lee created the proposal for the World Wide Web. He created HTTP, HTML, the first web browser, and the first HTTP server. This allows people to read and write on the internet via the use of computers. After its creation, the World Wide Web was primarily used for scientific researchers or science departments at universities. With time though there became more web servers all around the world. The World Wide Web has had such a drastic role in the current world of online technology and data collection. Sir Tim Berners-Lee was hugely influential and will remain an icon in the online world for many years to come. Image source: webfoundation.org/about/vision…

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by Caroline Brown

  On July 4, 1997, Sojourner became the first successful Mars Pathfinder.  The rover was autonomous and had front and rear cameras.  The robot’s communication lasted until September 27, 1977.  The rover was able to transmit approximately 550 images and more than 15 chemical analyses of rocks and soil throughout its lifespan. Image is a picture of the Sojourner.  Public Domain, commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.…

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by Susannah Pritchett-Montavon

In 2002, Mark Rosheim built a prototype of da Vinci’s mechanical knight using the original schematics/notes.  The construction of the knight proved that da Vinci’s original design was feasible and worked as intended.  Mark Rosheim was inspired by da Vinci in his career with NASA where he designed robots.  Image is a modern reconstruction of the mechanical knight in 2007 in the Leonardo3 laboratories.  Image by Leonardo3 - Mario Taddei - Photo in the Leonardo3 Laboratories, GFDL, commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.…

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by Susannah Pritchett-Montavon

  In 2011 IBM’s Watson competed on the hit TV show Jeopardy.  Watson is a computer system designed to answer questions posed in natural language.  Watson continuously outperformed its human components, including two of the most successful Jeopardy contestants, Ken Jennings and Ben Rutter.  Image is of IBM employees demonstrating Watson’s ability to play Jeopardy.  Image By Raysonho @ Open Grid Scheduler / Grid Engine - Own work, CC BY 3.0, commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.…

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by Susannah Pritchett-Montavon

The two statues that are located on top of the Clock Tower are known as the "Moors." Venetians came up with this name because the statues' bronze color have changed over time due to interacting with the elements. Due to deterioration, the Moors have not been able to strike the bell consistently. One Moor is supposed to strike the bell two minutes before the hour, while the other is supposed to strike it two minutes after the hour. Piaget agreed to finance the restoration of the Moors in 2014. Image By Yair Haklai (Own work) [CC BY-SA 4.0 (creativecommons.org/licenses/b…)], via Wikimedia Commons

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by Mikaela Meyer

On January 12, 2017 CNN published an article discussing the proposal by European lawmakers for all robots to be equipped with emergency “kill switches.” The article discusses the main aspects of the proposal including all robots being required to be easily identified as mechanical beings, having kill switches, and following orders from the creator at all times.  Image is a photo of the European Parliament’s hemicycle. Image by Diliff - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.…

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by Susannah Pritchett-Montavon

This is a future event

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by Dino Franco Felluga

The mythical foundation of Venice (during the feast of the Annunciation of the Virgin) is said to have occurred on 25 March 421. 421 is also the legendary date for the foundatin of the church of San Giacomo di Rialto (next to the Rialto bridge in Venice). Image: San Giacomo di Rialto. This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution Share Alike 4.0 International license. 

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by Dino Franco Felluga